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The problem
Intervention: This is an observational study examining associations, not an intervention evaluation
Who it was tested with: 1,167 families from the United States followed across 2019-2021.
Experience from people who deliver programmes: stories, case studies and lessons learned. Valuable for understanding how and why, and for spotting what to test next, but not a measure of effect.
"Latent profile analysis was conducted to examine the heterogeneity of long-term parental psychological distress. Subsequently, generalized linear models were employed to assess the associations between long-term parental psychological distress and the use of scolding and spanking, as well as how these associations vary by income poverty status." This longitudinal design with multiple waves of data and moderation analysis provides stronger evidence than cross-sectional work, but the observational nature means the evidence is correlational rather than causal.
Observational design prevents causal inference; cannot determine whether economic hardship causes increased spanking or whether both distress and harsh discipline are consequences of other unmeasured factors; relies on self-reported discipline practices.
Across countries and designs
18 studies · 17 countries
