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The problem
Intervention: This is an observational study examining the relationship between parental stress, alcohol use, and punitive parenting—not an intervention study
Who it was tested with: 342 parents living in Central Ohio during COVID-19 stay-at-home orders.
The same group is measured before the intervention and again afterwards, with a baseline and an endline and sometimes a midline. Change is visible, but other causes cannot be ruled out.
"We used geographic ecological momentary assessment (gEMA) to measure parental stress and punitive parenting during three time periods (10 a.m., 3 p.m., and 9 p.m.) over a period of fourteen days using an app downloaded to their cellular telephone. We used nested multilevel ordinal regression models, where at-the-moment assessments (Level 1) were nested within individuals (Level 2) to analyze data." This is an observational study with repeated measures over time but no intervention or comparison group, meeting the definition of PRE_POST design; however, the outcome direction is INCONCLUSIVE because the study documents associations rather than proving causation or intervention effectiveness.
Observational study cannot establish causation; self-report data subject to recall and social desirability bias; single geographic region during pandemic lockdown limits generalisability; interaction effects between stress and alcohol were not fully modelled
Across countries and designs
13 studies · 11 countries
