Importance: Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a specific learning disability of neurobiological origin whose core cognitive deficit is widely believed to involve language (phonological) processing. Although reading is also a visual task, the potential role of vision in DD has been controversial, and little is known about the integrity of visual function in individuals with DD. Objective: To assess the frequency of visual deficits (specifically vergence, accommodation, and ocular motor tracking) in children with DD compared with a control group of typically developing readers. Design, Setting, and Participants: A prospective, uncontrolled observational study was conducted from May 28 to October 17, 2016, in an outpatient ophthalmology ambulatory clinic among 29 children with DD and 33 typically developing (TD) children. Main Outcomes and Measures: Primary outcomes were frequencies of deficits in vergence (amplitude, fusional ranges, and facility), accommodation (amplitude, facility, and accuracy), and ocular motor tracking (Developmental Eye Movement test and Visagraph eye tracker). Results: Among the children with DD (10 girls and 19 boys; mean [SD] age, 10.3 [1.2] years) and the TD group (21 girls and 12 boys; mean [SD] age, 9.4 [1.4] years), accommodation deficits were more frequent in the DD group than the TD group (16 [55%] vs 3 [9%]; difference = 46%; 95% CI, 25%-67%; P < .001). For ocular motor tracking, 18 children in the DD group (62%) had scores in the impaired range (in the Developmental Eye Movement test, Visagraph, or both) vs 5 children in the TD group (15%) (difference, 47%; 95% CI, 25%-69%; P < .001). Vergence deficits occurred in 10 children in the DD group (34%) and 5 children in the TD group (15%) (difference, 19%; 95% CI, -2.2% to 41%; P = .08). In all, 23 children in the DD group (79%) and 11 children in the TD group (33%) had deficits in 1 or more domain of visual function (difference, 46%; 95% CI, 23%-69%; P < .001). Conclusions and Relevance: These findings suggest that deficits in visual function are far more prevalent in school-aged children with DD than in TD readers, but the possible cause and clinical relevance of these deficits are uncertain. Further study is needed to determine the extent to which treating these deficits can improve visual symptoms and/or reading parameters.
Aparna Raghuram, Sowjanya Gowrisankaran, Emily A Swanson et al.
Learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) starting at an early age is considered a better alternative than learning EFL at an older age. This study aims to examine the development of children's English capability especially in speaking after they have studied at home with Indonesian parents and at school with Indonesian teachers. This study is a longitudinal case study examining 2 children aged 80 and 52 months. The data were in the form of children's English utterances and were taken within 1-2 year intervals. The data were collected by recording their speech, interviewing both children and parents, and carrying out participant observations during data collection. Data analysis was performed using MLU (mean utterance length); UB (Upper Bound) or the number of morphemes of the longest utterance and Morpheme Acquisition (the types of morphemes acquired). The result is that in general they were able to converse in English, but they had different levels of MLU, UB, and Morpheme acquisition. This difference was ascribed to differences in the EFL intervention and learning experience. The first research subjects learned English with Direct Learning in courses and schools, she got her English in no time and her MLU was moderate. The second research subject experienced learning English from a very early age at home with his parents, his MLU was high.
Background and aims Previous research into word learning in children with developmental language disorder (DLD) indicates that the learning of word forms and meanings, rather than form-referent links, is problematic. This difficulty appears to arise with impaired encoding, while retention of word knowledge remains intact. Evidence also suggests that word learning skills may be related to verbal working memory. We aimed to substantiate these findings in the current study by exploring word learning over a series of days. Methods Fifty children with DLD (mean age 6; 11, 72% male) and 54 age-matched typically developing (TD) children (mean age 6; 10, 56% male) were taught eight novel words across a four-day word learning protocol. Day 1 measured encoding, Days 2 and 3 measured re-encoding, and Day 4 assessed retention. At each day, word learning success was evaluated using Naming, Recognition, Description, and Identification tasks. Results Children with DLD showed comparable performance to the TD group on the Identification task, indicating an intact ability to learn the form-referent links. In contrast, children with DLD performed significantly worse for Naming and Recognition (signifying an impaired ability to learn novel word forms), and for Description, indicating problems establishing new word meanings. These deficits for the DLD group were apparent at Days 1, 2, and 3 of testing, indicating impairments with initial encoding and re-encoding; however, the DLD and TD groups demonstrated a similar rate of learning. All children found the retention assessments at Day 4 difficult, and there were no significant group differences. Finally, verbal working memory emerged as a significant moderator of performance on the Naming and Recognition tasks, such that children with DLD and poor verbal working memory had the lowest levels of accuracy. Conclusions This study demonstrates that children with DLD struggle with learning novel word forms and meanings, but are unimpaired in their ability to establish new form-referent links. The findings suggest that the word learning deficit may be attributed to problems with encoding, rather than with retention, of new word knowledge; however, further exploration is required given the poor performance of both groups for retention testing. Furthermore, we found evidence that an impaired ability to learn word forms may only be apparent in children who have DLD and low levels of verbal working memory. Implications When working with children with DLD, speech-language pathologists should assess word learning using tasks that evaluate the ability to learn word forms, meanings, and form-referent links to develop a profile of individual word learning strengths and weaknesses. Clinicians should also assess verbal working memory to identify children at particular risk of word learning deficits. Future research should explore the notion of optimal intervention intensity for facilitating word learning in children with poor language and verbal working memory.
Processing speed is one of the measures of cognitive efficiency. It refers to the ability to automatically and fluently execute relatively easy or overlearned cognitive tasks, especially when high mental efficiency is required. Contemporary research has shown that the speed of information processing is dynamically associated with mental capacity, reading performance, and development and reasoning by the conservation of cognitive resources and the efficient use of working memory. While the impact of chess training on intelligence and academic performance has been unequivocally established, its impact on processing speed needs to be researched. This study, funded by the Cognitive Science Research Initiative, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, analyzed the effect of 1-year chess training on the processing speed of children. A pretest–posttest with control group design was used, with 88 children in the experimental group and 90 children in the control group. The sample was selected from children studying in four city schools (grades 3–9), which included both genders. The experimental group underwent weekly chess training for 1 year, while the control group was involved in extracurricular activities. Processing speed was measured by two subtests of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV India), namely Coding and Symbol Search. The training methodology comprised Winning Moves Chess Learning Program with the demonstration board, on-the-board playing and training, chess exercise through workbooks, and working with chess software. Analysis revealed significant gains in processing speed in the experimental group compared with the control group. The present study clearly establishes a link between chess training and processing speed. Enhancing processing speed in children is especially important because of its relationship to other cognitive and academic performance indicators.
Ebenezer Joseph, Veena Easvaradoss, David Chandran et al.
This study examines how visit purpose and visit configuration (family versus school groups) are associated with engagement patterns in an out-of-school science learnıng environment, specifically the Izmir Natural Wildlife Park. Drawing on Falk and Dierking’s Contextual Model of Learning, learning motivation is conceptualized not as a latent psychological trait but as a contextually expressed process observable through engagement behaviors. A qualitative case study design was employed with 119 middle school students aged 11–14. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and systematic observations, focusing on dwell time, label reading, interaction patterns, and reported learning outcomes. Findings indicate that visit purpose differed substantially between groups: family visitors predominantly reported entertainment-oriented goals, whereas school-group visitors emphasized learning-oriented purposes. These orientations corresponded to distinct engagement patterns. School groups demonstrated longer exhibit dwell times, higher rates of label reading, and more frequent articulation of specific content knowledge. In contrast, family groups engaged more socially within their own units but interacted less with interpretive materials. Despite these differences, children in both groups perceived school-led visits as more effective for learning. Interpreted within the contextual model framework, the findings suggest that visit purpose (personal context) and group structure (sociocultural context) shape how engagement becomes behaviorally visible within the same physical environment. Rather than indicating differences in intrinsic motivation, the results highlight how motivational activation is mediated by social configuration and institutional framing. The study contributes to the literature on science education in out-of-school learning environments by comparatively examining family and school visits within a wildlife park context and by operationalizing learning motivation through observable engagement indicators. Implications for exhibit design, teacher preparation, and out-of-school science learning environments policy are discussed.
This study aims to examine the effectiveness of using Scratch Edugame in enhancing coding skills among elementary school students. The research employs a qualitative approach, utilizing direct observations and questionnaires to gather data on students' engagement and understanding during coding lessons. The findings reveal that students demonstrated a high level of engagement and enthusiasm, actively exploring various command blocks in Scratch and collaborating with peers. Furthermore, students were able to solve basic coding problems independently, showcasing their problem-solving skills. The study concludes that Scratch, as an interactive and game-based learning tool, not only helps in teaching basic coding concepts but also fosters creativity, critical thinking, and collaboration among students. The use of Scratch in coding education contributes to a positive learning environment, enhancing students' motivation and confidence in technology-related subjects. This research highlights the potential of Edugame platforms like Scratch in elementary education, suggesting further exploration of its long-term impact on student learning.
Children experiencing learning barriers often do not make appropriate progress in school, particularly in primary skill areas. Their issues may be limited to a single school subject or may be evident across the entire academic curriculum. Learning barriers are a phenomenon that affects many children in South Africa, and children with learning barriers often experience several challenges, including victimisation, social rejection, and inadequate resources to address their needs. Despite developments in legislation and public awareness around learning barriers, minimal research in South Africa emphasises that these children and individuals still experience various challenges. This research sought to gain understanding of the challenges of children with learning barriers in Kariega, Eastern Cape. To ensure a robust and comprehensive understanding, this study utilised Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory as a conceptual framework. This theory focuses on various complex but interactive systems contributing to a child's development, providing a holistic view of the issue. A qualitative research approach was used in the study to explore and understand the meanings participants attached to the problems they were experiencing. This flexible approach allowed participants to provide detailed explanations, leading to the collection of comprehensive data due to its inductive nature. An explorative-descriptive design was used to explore a new topic or a subject with limited or no existing information. The descriptive aspect was important as it helps to describe the phenomenon, which is commonly applied in social science studies. aimed to understand the experiences and perceptions of educators working in low-quintile primary schools regarding the challenges faced by children with learning barriers. The population of this research study consisted of educators in primary schools focusing on quintiles one, two, and three in Kariega, Eastern Cape, specifically concentrating on the intermediate phase, grades 4 to 6. The non-probability sampling technique used was purposive sampling, which was the most appropriate for the study. Individual, indepth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with fifteen educators and one learner support agent from low-quintile primary schools until data saturation was reached. The data collected was analysed using thematic data analysis. The research process was underpinned by a commitment to ethical considerations, including voluntary participation, informed consent, no violation of privacy, anonymity, confidentiality, Appreciation, and avoidance of harm, to ensure the integrity and trustworthiness of the study. The study explored the multifaceted challenges faced by children with learning barriers in low-quintile primary schools and it highlighted how interconnected systems influenced educational outcomes: family dynamics and peer relationships directly impacted learning, while the interaction between home and school underscored the need for stronger collaboration. Systemic issues such as inadequate resources and support services and societal attitudes and cultural norms further shaped responses to learning barriers. A holistic and collaborative approach involving social development professionals, educators, caregivers, healthcare providers, and community organizations was deemed a necessity to address these challenges effectively and help learners reach their full potential.
Introduction & BackgroundApproximately 617 million children and adolescents worldwide do not possess the foundational skills to live healthy and productive lives. Sub-Saharan Africa is profoundly affected, resulting in social and financial dependency and raising vulnerability to forced marriage, female genital mutilation, and mental health issues. Contextual factors are considered critical in this crisis, yet have received little attention due to a currently insurmountable deficit in traditional census and survey data. Digital footprint data offers a potential route to filling this information gap - particularly in education- and how a learner’s environment can impact digital learning and future well-being. To address the crisis, the ‘Global Learning’ XPRIZE competition challenged teams to develop software empowering marginalised out-of-school children to learn literacy and numeracy skills. Five finalist teams tested their technology with 2041 children using handheld tablets in 172 remote villages in Tanzania. Objectives & ApproachOur study examined factors that can predict improvements in learning outcomes, building on the digital footprint data collected from the children participating in the device intervention in the form of app usage and locational and activity data. Additional geospatial features were engineered based on village coordinates, distance to local amenities, services and transport, variables serving as additional potential indicators of isolation and connectedness. These data were linked with child-level factors, including household composition and literacy levels. After comparative assessment of machine learning regression models, tree-based models (XGB, RF) were used to establish the optimal predictive performance for literacy and numeracy. Variable importance using SHAP was used to determine which specific contextual variables should be considered before deploying digital interventions to support education and well-being. Relevance to Digital FootprintsUtilising digital footprint data to quantify the influence of geospatial and contextual data in digital interventions can offer comprehensive insights to understand and address factors impacting learning outcomes in this context. ResultsPrior school attendance, home reading environments and high familial literacy were found to be predictors of higher learning outcomes after a technology-based learning intervention. Environments featuring an unemployed caregiver and few siblings were surprisingly consistent positive predictors, suggesting accompanying and focussed caregiver support as valuable for effective development via digital interventions. Proximity to police stations and health centres were revealed as key predictors, indicating the importance of social and physical connectedness in positive learning environments. Conclusions & ImplicationsTargeted improvement of EdTech provision with out-of-school learners promises to help the development of learning outcomes in remote villages and reduce vulnerabilities to correlated social and health issues. However, positive outcomes can only be achieved when appropriate supporting environments surround interventions.
Bethany Huntington, Nicola J. Pitchford, James Goulding
One of the problems in the learning process for elementary school children is the lack of focus and concentration in learning because teachers often use conventional models and do not interactive. The failure to achieve mastery of learning is caused by students' weak understanding of the material being taught, and the lack of teacher creativity in developing learning models so that the learning outcomes obtained are less than optimal. The researcher aims to analyse the effect between the application of the Project Based Learning (PjBL) learning model and learning motivation of elementary students on learning outcomes in PPKn subjects. In this study the quantitative experimental method was used with the pretest and posttest experimental designs used. The sample used was 30 students. Data collection techniques is using a pretest-posttest and giving questionnaires to students. The data analysis technique uses a two-way analysis of variance to test the hypothesis. However, a requirement test was carried out, which included a normality test and a homogeneity test. Based on the analysis of the results, there is a relationship between applying the PjBL learning model and learning motivation on the learning outcomes of Civics subjects in elementary schools. It was concluded that applying the PjBL learning model and learning motivation could improve student learning outcomes.
In societies where education holds high significance and parental ambitions for their children’s academic achievements are profound, understanding the rationale behind parental school choice becomes crucial. This study aims to explore the question: Are Saudi parents rational in selecting their children’s schools? Through an in-depth analysis of preferences and decision-making factors, this research endeavors to shed light on the intricate dynamics influencing parental school choice within the Saudi Arabian context. To achieve this objective, semi-structured interviews were conducted with Saudi parents whose children were enrolled in private schools (K-12). The findings indicate that cultural or religious identity emerged as a predominant factor, encompassing elements such as gender segregation in schools, parental preference for English over Arabic language learning, and the emphasis on Islamic religious education. Additionally, accessibility factors such as the physical location of the school and school fees emerged as significant determinants of parental preferences for their children’s schools. Wellbeing emerged as a crucial factor in parental decision-making. Furthermore, certain academic considerations emerged as a primary influencing factor in Saudi parents’ school selection. These considerations included skills development, school pedagogy, school staff quality, and learning outcomes.
Hanadi Fahad Alothman, Lina Bashatah, Abdulaziz Salem Aldossari et al.
