Nigeria’s agricultural sector is central to food security, employment generation, economic diversification, and rural development, yet its transformative potential remains constrained by persistent structural, environmental, institutional, and socioeconomic challenges. This narrative review critically examines contemporary issues affecting Nigerian agriculture between 2020 and 2025, evaluates strategies for sectoral revitalisation, and draws lessons from relevant international experiences. Secondary data were obtained from peer-reviewed literature, policy documents, and national and international databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, African Journals Online, and the Central Bank of Nigeria, the National Bureau of Statistics, FAOSTAT, the World Bank, and FEWS NET. Evidence was synthesised thematically around key agricultural problems, transformation models, international experiences, and policy recommendations. The review identifies declining land and labour productivity, weak input and extension systems, inadequate irrigation, poor rural infrastructure, high post-harvest losses, limited agro-processing capacity, climate variability, environmental degradation, insecurity, policy inconsistency, underinvestment, land constraints, and unequal access to digital technologies and agricultural finance as major barriers to agricultural transformation. Although initiatives such as the Anchor Borrowers’ Programme, NIRSAL, digital agriculture, climate-smart practices, and value-chain development have generated important opportunities, their impacts have been limited by weak implementation, institutional fragmentation, inadequate funding, and exclusion of smallholders, women, and youth. International experiences from Asia, Latin America, India, and the Sahel demonstrate the importance of sustained public investment, effective farmer organisations, community-led adaptation, integrated value-chain development, and stable policy institutions.
Abstract The place of residence is a major determinant of RMNCH outcomes, with rural areas often lagging in sub-Saharan Africa. This long-held pattern may be changing given differential progress across areas and increasing urbanization. We assessed inequalities in child mortality and RMNCH coverage across capital cities, other urban and rural areas. We analyzed mortality data from 162 DHS and MICS in 39 countries with the most recent survey conducted between 1990 and 2020, and RMNCH coverage data from 39 countries. We assessed inequality trends in neonatal and under-five mortality and in RMNCH coverage using multilevel linear regression models. Under-five mortality and RMNCH service coverage inequalities by place of residence have reduced substantially in sub-Saharan Africa, with rural areas experiencing faster progress than other areas. The absolute gap in child mortality between rural areas and capital cities, and that between rural and other urban areas reduced respectively from 41 and 26 deaths per 1000 live births in 2000 to 23 and 15 by 2015. Capital cities are losing their primacy in child survival and RMNCH coverage over other urban areas and rural areas, especially in Eastern Africa where under-five mortality gap between capital cities and rural areas closed almost completely by 2015. While child mortality and RMNCH coverage inequalities are closing rapidly by place of residence; slow trends in capital cities and urban areas suggest gradual erosion of capital city and urban health advantage. Monitoring child mortality and RMNCH coverage trends in urban areas, especially among the urban poor, and addressing factors of within urban inequalities are urgently needed.
Agbessi Amouzou, Dessalegn Y. Melesse, Fernando C. Wehrmeister et al.
Background Malnutrition among children under five remains a major public health challenge in sub-Saharan Africa, with those born to young mothers being particularly vulnerable. Evidence on the role of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in this subgroup is limited in Ghana. We estimated the association between WASH and childhood malnutrition, and characterized its spatial and socioeconomic distribution, in young mother–child pairs in Ghana. Methods We analyzed 620 child–mother pairs (mothers aged 15–24 years) from the 2022 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey. Outcomes were stunting, wasting, and underweight, defined using WHO growth standards (< −2 SD). Survey-weighted multilevel logistic regression examined WASH–nutrition associations. Spatial patterns were assessed using Global Moran’s I, and LISA and Getis-Ord G*. Socioeconomic inequality was measured via concentration indices, the Theil T index, Lorenz curves, and difference/relative indices. Population attributable fractions (PAF) and risks (PAR) were estimated for binary WASH exposures. Results Stunting prevalence was 18.8% (95% CI 15.5–22.6), wasting 8.7% (6.2–11.9), and underweight 15.6% (12.4–19.4). Volta Region recorded the highest observed weighted prevalence for all three outcomes (stunting 32.0%, wasting 16.8%, underweight 39.4%), but these estimates were based on a small subsample (unweighted n = 20). Global spatial autocorrelation was not statistically significant for any outcome (all p ≥ 0.296). LISA identified Oti as a possible hotspot for underweight ( p = 0.039), and Central and Bono as cold spots for stunting ( p = 0.047) and wasting ( p = 0.018). Improved water access showed the largest protective population-level association (PAF: stunting −36 to −41%; underweight −37%), interpreted as a population-level attributable-burden estimate under a cross-sectional design. Concentration indices were negative for all outcomes, indicating disproportionate burden among poorer and less-educated households, reaching statistical significance for underweight. WASH covariates were not significantly associated with any outcome in fully adjusted models. Multilevel models showed high apparent discrimination (AUC 0.859–0.868). Conclusion Malnutrition among children of young mothers in Ghana is unevenly distributed and concentrated among socioeconomically disadvantaged populations. Equitable WASH services, alongside targeted nutrition programming, may help reduce nutritional inequalities in support of SDG 2 and SDG 6.
Deda Ogum, Yula Salifu, Abdul Razak Abubakari et al.
Background. Even though immunisation coverage is tracked through the district health system in South Africa (SA), limited information is available regarding interventions linked to the Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI) and the impact on the nutritional status of children <5 years of age. Objectives. To describe coverage of immunisations, vitamin A supplementation and deworming among children <5 years old in an urban area of Nelson Mandela Bay, Eastern Cape Province, SA. A secondary objective was to investigate whether a history of missed immunisations, vitamin A supplementation or deworming was associated with wasting or stunting in children. Methods. A descriptive study was conducted between September 2015 and February 2016, where cross-sectional anthropometrical data were collected from 1 513 children in 32 pre-schools, together with a retrospective analysis of the participants’ Road-to-Health/clinic cards to collect data on immunisation, vitamin A and deworming. Participants were categorised into 3-month age intervals to facilitate data analysis. Ethical approval was obtained from the Nelson Mandela University Research Ethics Committee (Human). Results. Data of 1 496 children were included in the analysis. The prevalence of underweight was 2.5% (n=37), while 11.2% (n=167) were stunted and 1.1% (n=16) were wasted. There were associations between age category and delayed vitamin A supplementation (χ2=32.105; df=19; n=836; p=0.03) and deworming (χ2= 45.257; df=17; n=558; p<0.001), but there was no association between delayed vaccinations and age category. There were no significant differences in anthropometrical indicators for children with delayed vitamin A supplementation, deworming and vaccinations compared with children in this sample who were up to date regarding the relevant indicators. However, weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height z-scores and stunting risk were associated with low birthweight (LBW) (odds ratio (OR) 4.658; p<0.001). Conclusion. Coverage of vitamin A supplementation and deworming but not immunisations was poorer among children in older age categories. A history of delayed vitamin A, deworming and vaccinations was not associated with the anthropometrical status of children. Children with LBW should be considered for more rigorous follow-up, as they are at higher risk of stunting.
Background Adequate infant nutrition is essential for optimal growth, cognitive development, and overall health. Although breastfeeding is the recommended source of nutrition during infancy, micronutrient deficiencies, particularly iron, vitamin A, iodine deficiencies, and anaemia, remain major public health concerns in developing countries. In South Africa, especially in rural communities, limited information exists on breastfeeding practices and the micronutrient status of breastfed infants and their mothers. This study aims to assess feeding practices, growth patterns, and the prevalence of iron, vitamin A, and iodine deficiencies among breastfed infants younger than 12 months in Thulamela Municipality, Limpopo Province. Methods A quantitative cross-sectional study will be conducted among breastfeeding mothers and their infants aged less than 12 months attending selected primary healthcare facilities in Thulamela Municipality. Based on a prevalence estimate of 13.1%, a 95% confidence level, and a 5% margin of error, a minimum sample size of 175 participants was calculated. After accounting for a 10% non-response rate, 193 mother-infant pairs will be recruited using a multistage sampling procedure. Data collection will include interviewer-administered questionnaires, anthropometric measurements, and biochemical analyses. Information on sociodemographic characteristics and breastfeeding practices will be obtained through structured questionnaires. Maternal and infant anthropometric measurements will be recorded, while haemoglobin concentration will be measured using the HemoCue® Hb 201+ Analyzer. Serum biomarkers of iron, vitamin A, iodine status, and inflammation will be analysed using the Q-Plex™ Human Micronutrient Array. Data will be analysed using SPSS. Results and Conclusion : The study is expected to determine the prevalence of iron deficiency, anaemia, vitamin A deficiency, and iodine deficiency, describe breastfeeding practices and growth patterns, and explore associations between maternal and infant nutritional status. Findings will provide evidence to guide nutrition interventions, breastfeeding promotion strategies, and public health policies aimed at improving maternal and child health in rural South African communities.
Objectives Every child around the globe should get routine childhood vaccination, which is mostly affected by the country’s economic capacity besides the socioeconomic differences. However, how well countries with different economic capacities address equitable child vaccination remains unanswered. Methods Cross-sectional data from the latest Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) database of Mali, Bangladesh, and South Africa was used for this study. The dependent variable was full child vaccination, and wealth-based inequality was assessed using rate-ratio, concentration curve, and concentration index. A multilevel Poisson regression analysis was used to determine the predictors of inequalities. A risk ratio (RR) with a p-value of 0.05 was used to declare statistical significance. All analysis was weighted. Results Full child vaccination status was 30.15%, 62.18%, and 46.94% in Mali, Bangladesh, and South Africa respectively. Even if the disparity is higher in Mali, the full vaccination favors the better-off family both in Mali, and Bangladesh respectively [CInd: 0.05, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.09], [CInd: 0.02, 95% CI: 0.001, 0.03], wealth status did not have an effect in South Africa. The multilevel poison regression indicated maternal age, occupation, wealth of household, and frequency of watching television to positively affect full vaccination, whereas the number of children in the house negatively affected full vaccination. Conclusion Wealth-based inequality in child vaccination was higher in Mali followed by Bangladesh. There was no observable significant equity gap in South Africa. Wealth status, maternal occupation, maternal age, frequency of watching television, and number of children were predictors of full child vaccination.
Abstract The introduction of salt iodization is associated with improved health and socioeconomic outcomes, but is not yet universally adopted and not always sustained. Using a quasi-experimental event study with difference-in-differences over space and time, we quantify the impacts of iodine deficiency in utero and infancy on childhood mortality and later academic achievement in Ethiopia, comparing cohorts born just before and after the May 1998 border closure that interrupted access to iodized salt. Rural children with fewer months of early-life exposure to iodized salt scored lower on standardized secondary-school exams, especially in districts with low environmental iodine, with excess deaths emerging in infancy and persisting through early childhood. These findings reveal the long-term benefits of salt iodization for health and education, especially for people with low intake of iodine from environmental sources.
Abstract Background Iron and zinc deficiencies are a major public health concern among children aged 6-24 months in Northern Uganda, particularly in the Acholi sub-region. These deficiencies are largely linked to complementary foods prepared from inadequately processed local ingredients with high anti-nutritional factors, which impair micronutrient absorption. This study investigated the effect of malting on broken rice-iron-rich beans composite flour, focusing on sensory properties, nutrient composition, bioavailability, and anti-nutritional content. Methods Nine formulations (four malted, four unmalted, and one control) were analyzed. Sensory evaluations were conducted with 124 mothers of children aged 6-24 months. Proximate composition, micronutrient content, and anti-nutritional factors were determined in the laboratory. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA at p ≤ 0.05. Results For children aged 6-11 months, the most preferred formulation was composite F (30% unmalted beans: 70% rice), while composite C (40% malted beans: 60% rice) was most acceptable for 12-24 months. Composite A (30% malted beans: 70% rice) and G (40% unmalted beans: 60% rice) recorded moisture contents of 2.3% and 3.0%, respectively, with G being significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05). Composite E (30% unmalted beans: 70% rice) showed the highest water absorption capacity, while malting reduced oil absorption capacity and bulk density. Ash content was higher in malted samples (A = 1.45%, C = 2.28%) than unmalted (E = 1.52%, G = 1.76%). Carbohydrate levels were consistent but highest in the control (100% rice = 91.71%). Protein digestibility was higher in malted samples (A = 33.16%, C = 12.35%), while zinc bioavailability was highest in C (4.14%). Malting increased zinc, calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and fiber, and reduced phytate and trypsin inhibitors, though polyphenols and tannins slightly increased. Conclusions Malting improved nutritional quality, functional properties, and acceptability of complementary foods. Composite A is suitable for 6-11 months, and composite C for 12-24 months. Promoting iron-rich bean composites through caregiver education and early childhood feeding programs could enhance nutrient intake, support growth, and prevent micronutrient deficiencies.
Christopher Atibo, Sunday Mark Oyet, Christopher Muggaga et al.
Abstract Background According to the United Nations, the third Sustainable Development Goal, ‘Ensure Healthy Lives and Promote Well-Being at All Ages’, set numerous targets on child and maternal health. Universal health insurance is broadly seen as a solution to fulfil these targets. West Africa is known to have the most severe maternal mortality and under-five mortality rates in the world. This review seeks to understand whether health insurance provides increased access to services for mothers and children in this region. Methods The protocol for this review is registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews database (CRD42020203859). A search was conducted in the MEDLINE Complete, Embase, CINAHL Complete and Global Health databases. Eligible studies were from West African countries. The population of interest was mothers and children and the outcome of interest was the impact of health insurance on access to services. Data were extracted using a standardized form. The primary outcome was the impact of health insurance on the rate of utilization and access to services. The Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Tool was used for methodological assessment. Results Following screening, we retained 49 studies representing 51 study settings. In most study settings, health insurance increased access to child and maternal health services. Other determinants of access were socio-economic factors such as wealth and education. Conclusions Our findings suggest that health insurance may be a viable long-term strategy to alleviate West Africa's burden of high maternal and child mortality rates. An equity lens must guide future policy developments and significant research is needed to determine how to provide access reliably and sustainably to services for mothers and children in the near and long term.
Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) remains a significant public health issue among children in many parts of Kenya. This study aimed to utilize locally available sorghum, pearl millet, and pigeon peas to develop a protein-rich complementary flour blend that could contribute to efforts to improve the nutritional quality of complementary foods for young children in Tharaka Nithi County, Kenya. The study employed a nested experimental design with pigeon pea level (0, 15, 30, 45, and 60% of the total flour blend) as the main factor and sorghum level (0, 20, and 40% of the remaining flour after pigeon pea addition) nested within each pigeon pea level to evaluate protein content and in vitro protein digestibility of flour blends. An additional factor, storage period (days), was included to assess selected storage quality indicators of the millet-based flour blends during storage. Formulated flour blends were then analysed for protein content, protein digestibility, yeast and mold counts, titratable acidity, and pH. The results revealed that the addition of pigeon peas significantly (p < 0.001) increased the protein content and the digestibility of the flour blends. The average relative humidity and temperature during storage were 55.5% and 25.2 °C, respectively. The addition of pigeon peas to the blends significantly (p < 0.002) increased the titratable acidity of the composite flour blends. The initial mean yeast and mold count was 2.439 ± 0.147 Log CFU/g, which was below the East African Community recommended safety limit for millet flour (4 Log CFU/g). The yeast and mold count slightly increased during storage in the first 16 days, followed by a significant decrease, reaching 1.052 Log CFU/g by day 45. These findings demonstrate the potential of pigeon peas, sorghum, and millet as locally available ingredients for the development of nutritionally improved complementary foods.
Catherine Nzisa Mwangangi, Jackin Njagi Nanua, Willy Kiboi et al.
