Over recent decades, the issues of Japan’s multi-racial identity and society have piqued both lay and academic interest. Whilst the majority of studies have focused on early life stages: childhood/adolescence (Kamada, 2010; Nakamura, 2020; Seiger, 2019) and young adults (Murphy-Shigematsu, 2008; Oshima, 2014; Yoshida & Oikawa, 2012), research on haafu adults - the so-called first generation of mixed-race Japanese - is comparatively limited (e.g., Kich 1982; Shaitan & McEntee-Atalianis, 2017). This thesis addresses this lacuna by investigating the small stories (Bamberg & Georgakopoulou, 2008) participants tell about their biracial identity/identification. Drawn from ethnographically informed semi-structured interviews, their small stories reveal how haafu adults construct, contest and navigate their identities in interaction when discussing dominant discourses circulating in Japanese society about being ‘haafu.’ The study seeks to extend Bakhtin’s (1981) concept of chronotopes (literally, “time space”) to an empirical analysis of narratives told by seven self-identified haafu adults (three female and four male). It illuminates the connectedness of temporal and spatial relationships in any discursive event and how “spatial and temporal indicators are fused into one carefully thought-out, concrete whole” (Bakhtin, 1981: 84). In addition, the notion of chronotopes foregrounds the inseparability of time and space between the narrated (story) and narrating event (storytelling) where participants address and at times coalesce the past with the present, thereby framing instances of discursive expressions, deictic indices, and agents described in the story from a distant ‘there-and-then’ to the ‘here-and-now’ storytelling event, as if the events were occurring at present (Perrino, 2007; 2015). Analysis found that informants oriented to three developmental stages as they described turning points in their identity formation. Parallels to Kich’s (1982; 1992) stages of biracial/bicultural identity development were found. Informants described: an enforced awareness by society of being different (relayed as being experienced most keenly in childhood), a struggle for acceptance/ a declared ‘identity crisis’ (most salient in adolescence/youth) and a conscious movement in adulthood to self-acceptance and a preferred assertion of interracial identity. Based on the data, Kich’s framework is extended by adding a fourth stage articulated by all in their tellings, i.e., identity as life-long navigation, as unresolved and forever mobile and fluid. Informant accounts resonated with Turner’s (1969) notion of liminality, i.e., haafu individuals described living between fixed and ‘floating worlds’, accompanied by ‘status-less-ness’ at various stages in life. In addition, some participants whose phenotypical makeup did not mark them as different from the majority of Japanese and/or the country of their non-Japanese parent, displayed a ‘chameleon ability’ to negotiate a temporary sense of freedom (where they could pass as a Japanese) from the restrictions and ambiguities of being ‘both’, ‘neither’ and/or ‘between’ and ‘betwixt’- of being neither fully Japanese nor other. Overall, results revealed that all participants deployed small stories to provide salient accounts of their lived experiences as bi-/multiracial individuals across their life course. These were deployed to justify, contest and resist dominant discourses and master narratives circulating in society about being ‘half’ and used to negotiate their status in ‘real time’ interaction in response to questions. Findings also revealed variation across informants, associated with individual characteristics/circumstance: family racial makeup and background (e.g., Caucasian, Asian, Black), phenotypical features, types of education (e.g., Japanese school vs. international school), group affiliations and the extent to which informants had maintained contact with their extended ‘non-Japanese’ family. Contrary to Kich (1982) and Turner (1969), participants in this study did not reach a stable, and ‘achieved identity’ (Ping & Ong, 2007). Rather, their identities were subject to ongoing negotiation in different contexts and interactions, whilst their sense of agency was reported to develop with maturity.
Research Context: Children have been systematically under-researched in Anglo-Saxon archaeology due to low burial representation and methodological challenges. This research addresses gaps in understanding childhood experiences in early medieval communities within the East Anglian Fenlands' unique wetland environment, which created distinct living conditions that shaped community organisation and childhood experiences differently from inland settlements. Aims and Objectives: The research aims to reconstruct children's lived experiences and lifecycle identity through interdisciplinary methods combining osteological assessment, burial analysis, and biomolecular techniques. Objectives explore childhood identity development and gendered burial practices; analyse health experiences and environmental impacts; and reconstruct dietary patterns and weaning practices. Materials and Methods: The focal site of investigation is the 5th-6th century Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Oakington, Cambridgeshire, where subadults comprise 51.2% of the population – an unusually high proportion compared to contemporary sites. Three further contemporaneous sites (Lakenheath, Edix Hill and Littleport) which occupy areas in and around the Fenlands are used for contextualisation within the wider Anglo-Saxon landscape. Methods include skeletal examination recording age, health indicators, and pathological conditions; burial analysis; peptide analysis for biological sex determination; and stable isotope analysis (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, δ³⁴S) reconstructing dietary and weaning practices. Key Findings: Isotopic analysis reveals distinctive Fenland subsistence strategies with intensive wetland exploitation. Health analysis demonstrates notably higher stress indicators in Fenland children compared to upland sites, potentially linked with malaria and nutritional deficiencies. Four potential lifecycle thresholds are identified through distinctions in grave goods and body treatment and isotope values: birth, weaning, onset of puberty, and transition to adulthood. A variety of evidence from foetal remains provides information on wider maternal health and mobility patterns in early Anglo-Saxon Fenland communities including elevated δ¹⁵N values suggestive of maternal physiological stress during pregnancy; outlier δ¹³C and δ³⁴S values indicative of dietary sources outside of the range for the Oakington community; and peripheral burial locations reflecting cultural beliefs about the liminal status of pregnancy and birth. Carbon and nitrogen stable isotope patterns show weaning ages fell between one and three years old with the main weaning foods likely being made up of soft foods like cereals, milk, grains and potentially even fish. Pots are uniquely found with infants at Oakington, potentially highlighting their association with weaning foods, outlining an identity specific to the transitional period of starting to eat solid foods and identifying survival through infancy as a potential lifecycle threshold. Fenland communities show stronger female-oriented identity development compared to inland sites, with male-gendered grave goods appearing primarily in adulthood. The integration of peptide analysis reveals previously undetectable patterns, such as contradictory knife distributions between subadults and adults, demonstrating age-specific gendered perceptions that have previously remained invisible. Original Contribution: This research advances early Anglo-Saxon subadult archaeology by demonstrating how environmental contexts shaped distinctive childhood identity formation. Peptide analysis establishes a crucial tool for studying gendered practices, while δ³⁴S analysis reveals unique wetland isotopic signatures and community interaction with the wider East Anglian landscape. Findings highlight complex adaptive strategies of Fenland communities and emphasise integrating biological, environmental, and social evidence in archaeological childhood studies.
Background: The Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) is one of the most successful and cost effective public health interventions for vaccine-preventable diseases of under-5 children in Bangladesh. Complete and timely immunization of under-5 children largely depends upon the knowledge and practice of caregivers’ regarding vaccination. Evaluating caregivers’ knowledge and practices regarding EPI is necessary to find out the gaps and enhance immunization services. Objective: To assess the knowledge and practice of caregivers of under-5 children regarding EPI at Bangladesh Shishu Hospital & Institute, Dhaka. Methods: It was a descriptive cross-sectional study conducted from 8th to 22nd February 2025 among caregivers of under-5 children attending the outpatient department (OPD) and EPI centre of Bangladesh Shishu Hospital and Institute, Dhaka. The knowledge and practice of the caregivers regarding EPI were assessed using 8 questions on knowledge and 5 on practice, assigning a score of 1 for each correct response and 0 for each incorrect response. Purposive sampling technique was used for data collection and the final sample size was 148. The data were analysed via SPSS (version 31.0). Results: The mean age of the under-5 children was 16.12±12.37 months (mean±SD) and the majority (53.4%) of under-5 children were aged 0-12 months. The study population included 50.7% males and 49.3% females. The majority were Muslim (72.3%) and resided in urban areas (70.3%). More than three-fifths (62.2%) of the caregivers reported health centres as their source of knowledge about EPI. Three-fourths (75%) of the participants had adequate knowledge, while the majority (95.3%) demonstrated good practices regarding EPI. Conclusion: The results of our study revealed that the majority of the participants had an adequate level of knowledge and demonstrated good practice regarding immunization of under-5 children. The majority first heard about vaccination from health centres and were aware that tuberculosis, measles, rubella, polio, diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus and hepatitis B can be prevented by vaccine. However, most of the participants lacked knowledge that vaccine can prevent diseases like meningitis and pneumonia also. DS (Child) H J 2025; 41(1): 31-35
B H Nazma Yasmeen, Md Tahmidul Islam, Akhand Tanzih Sultana et al.
This study investigates the effects of fertility rate, infant mortality rate, population growth rate, and net migration on life expectancy in Nigeria over the period 1991-2025. The study was motivated by limited empirical evidence on the combined influence of key demographic variables on longevity despite their importance for health and development policy. Annual time-series data were analysed using the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach following Phillips Perron unit root tests and ARDL bounds cointegration analysis. The results confirmed the existence of a stable long-run relationship among the variables. Fertility rate exerted a positive and statistically significant effect on life expectancy, whereas infant mortality rate and population growth rate exhibited significant negative effects. Net migration showed a negative but statistically insignificant relationship with life expectancy. Diagnostic tests revealed no evidence of serial correlation or heteroskedasticity, while normality, specification, and stability tests confirmed the robustness and reliability of the estimated model. The findings suggest that demographic characteristics remain important determinants of life expectancy in Nigeria. The unexpected positive fertility coefficient is interpreted cautiously because it may reflect improvements in maternal and child healthcare, broader socioeconomic progress, and unobserved structural factors rather than a direct beneficial effect of higher fertility. The study concludes that sustained reductions in infant mortality and effective population management are essential for improving longevity. It recommends strengthening maternal and child healthcare services, expanding primary healthcare coverage, promoting voluntary family planning and reproductive health education, and improving demographic data systems. Future research should employ panel datasets to address endogeneity in Nigeria.
Abstract Background COVID-19 pandemic modified trends of infant bronchiolitis, leading cause of emergency room (ER) attendance in infants in high income countries, primarily due to Respiratory Syncytial Virus. Understanding recent pandemic-related epidemiological shifts could inform affordable prevention efforts to improve sustainability and coverage of prophylactic treatments beyond maternal vaccines and infant monoclonal antibodies. Methods We estimated incidence rates (IR) of bronchiolitis ER presentations in 0-6month olds in 2012-2023 in a region-wide cohort of almost 1 million births using administrative health data from Lombardy, Italy. To assess potential contributors, we investigated direct and indirect COVID-19-related factors, including disease severity, shape of the epidemic peak, parental health seeking behaviour and vaccine coverage. We estimated COVID-19 maternal vaccination associations using mothers-infants data linkages and multivariable-adjusted logistic regression. Findings Compared to pre-pandemic levels, IRs doubled in 2021-2023 (from 2 to ≥ 4/100 person-time). The surge could not be explained by changes in infant age at ER visit, clinical severity or in the shape of the epidemic peak. Adjusted models showed little support for a role of infant routine or maternal COVID-19 vaccination on bronchiolitis episodes (respectively hazard ratio 1.09, 95%CI: 0.98–1.22 and odds ratio 0.91, 95%CI: 0.76–1.09). Interpretation The post-pandemic increase in infant bronchiolitis is likely driven by multiple epidemiological changes rather than a single factor. As maternal RSV vaccination and infant RSV monoclonal antibodies are introduced and scale up, identifying these mechanisms will be critical to maximise their public health impact, inform complementary prevention strategies, and improve preparedness for future RSV epidemics.
Valeria Nazzari, Albert Navarro Gallinad, Laura Ghirardi et al.
Background: Immunization is among the most cost-effective public health interventions, but awareness does not necessarily translate into timely completion of the schedule. This study assessed mothers' knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) regarding immunization of under-five children and factors associated with immunization status. Methods: A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted at the pediatric outpatient department of Assam Medical College and Hospital, Dibrugarh, from June 2015 to May 2016. In all, 360 mothers of under-five children were interviewed using a predesigned, pretested proforma. Associations were tested using chi-square and Fisher exact tests, with p<0.05 considered significant. Results: Overall, 322 mothers (89.44%) were aware of childhood immunization, the commonest source being health facilities (40.99%). Knowledge regarding the purpose of immunization (72.78%) and the correct starting age at birth (85%) was good; however, schedule-specific knowledge was weaker, notably the correct age for measles (46.67%) and the number of DPT doses (41.67%). Attitudes were largely favourable (86.11% considered immunization important). However, only 264 children (73.33%) were completely immunized; 51 (14.17%) were partially immunized and 45 (12.50%) unimmunized. Child sickness (46.88%) and lack of knowledge (39.58%) were the leading reasons for incomplete immunization, and lack of knowledge accounted for 62.38% of missed scheduled doses. Maternal literacy was associated with immunization knowledge, and immunization status with child sex and maternal religion (p<0.05). Conclusions: A clear knowledge–practice gap was evident; awareness and attitudes were favourable, but about one in four children was incompletely immunized. Schedule-specific counselling, appropriate advice during childhood illness and reduction of access barriers may help convert favourable attitudes into timely immunization.
Background: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a major cause of acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) in infants, with low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) bearing a disproportionately high burden. While novel RSV prophylactic products including long-acting monoclonal antibodies and a maternal vaccine are being rolled out for protecting the general infant population in high-income countries, implementation in LMICs is only expected by 2028, potentially exacerbating health inequities. We aimed to assess regional inequality in infant RSV disease burden with and without the implementation of these interventions. Methods: We re-analysed the previous global RSV disease burden dataset in infants by WHO regions and World Bank Income Classification for the year of 2019 as a baseline, using generalised linear mixed-effects models. We developed a static deterministic model that explicitly accounted for the varied risks for RSV admission by birth month and chronological age in month and projected the annual RSV-associated ALRI hospital admissions and RSV-attributable deaths under two scenarios: a no-implementation scenario that assumed the same hospital admission and mortality rates to the 2019 baseline, and a June-2025 product use scenario that was based on country-level implementation status of novel RSV prophylactic products as of June 2025; the two scenarios were then compared to estimate the impact of the current implementation of novel prophylactic products. We further calculated the ratio of RSV-attributable deaths between the highest and lowest burden quintiles (Q5-Q1 ratio) to assess inequality under the two scenarios. Findings: At baseline, the African Region had the highest incidence of RSV-associated ALRI (117.4 per 1000 person-years, 95% uncertainty range, UR: 60.0-229.8) and highest RSV-attributable mortality rate (0.97 per 1000 person-years, 95% UR: 0.76-1.31) while having the lowest RSV-associated ALRI hospital admission rate (12.6 per 1000 person-years; 95% UR: 7.5-21.3); the Eastern Mediterranean Region had the highest hospital admission rate (29.9 per 1000 person-years, 95% UR: 14.2-63.2). The regional variations in incidence, hospital admission, and mortality rates persisted when further stratifying the above estimates by country income level. As of June 2025, nirsevimab and maternal RSVpreF had been licensed in 54 and 64 countries, respectively, with 16 and 12 countries introducing them into their national immunisation programmes. A total of 4,641,000 doses of nirsevimab and 1,955,000 doses of RSVPreF were estimated to be administered annually under the June-2025 product use scenario globally. Administration of both products was projected to jointly avert 91,000 (95% UR: 75,000-118,000) RSV-associated ALRI hospital admissions and 300 (95% UR: 210-470) RSV-attributable deaths in infants annually, corresponding to 3.7% (95% UR: 2.7-4.9) and 0.4% (95% UR: 0.3-0.7) of the global admissions and deaths, respectively. Approximately 90% of averted hospital admissions and over 70% of averted deaths in infants occurred in high-income countries (81,000 [95% UR: 66,000-108,000] and 220 [95% UR: 140-390], respectively), corresponding to reductions of 33.2% (95% UR 31.0-35.9) and 29.1% (95% UR 22.6-35.2); by contrast, the relative reduction of admissions and deaths in middle-income countries was less than 5%, and no reduction was expected in low-income countries. Globally, substantial inequality was observed in the RSV-attributable overall mortality burden under the no-implementation scenario, with the Q5-Q1 ratio of RSV-attributable deaths estimated at 18.3 (95% UR: 11.7-27.5). The June-2025 product use scenario was associated with a possible slight increase in global inequality, with the Q5-Q1 ratio rising to 20.8 (95% UR: 13.0-31.7). Interpretation: The global RSV burden in 2019 varied substantially by region and income level, with the African Region exhibiting the highest incidence and mortality but the lowest hospitalisation rates. The current implementation of novel RSV prophylactic products, characterised by widespread licensing and use in high-income countries and lack of availability in LMICs, particularly the African Region, is projected to yield only modest reductions in the global infant RSV disease burden. Critically, inequitable access to these products may exacerbate existing inequalities in RSV mortality burden. These findings underscore the urgent need for targeted strategies to accelerate the introduction and scale-up of infant RSV immunisation programmes in LMICs. Funding: World Health Organization and National Natural Science Foundation of China (82473692).
Economic evaluation offers policy makers a valuable tool for optimizing the use scarce healthcare resources. This scoping review aims to describe the existing scientific literature on economic evaluation and budget impact analysis of vaccine interventions, and the use of economic evidence in Africa. It highlights the current landscape and the challenges in using economic data to support vaccine policy on the continent. This study adapted and followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. We included peer-reviewed studies published in English between January 2000 and July 2025 that reported on cost and economic evaluations of vaccines administered to children and youth, or on the use of economic evidence for policy decision-making in Africa. A literature search was conducted across five electronic databases: Medline, Embase, Web of Science, and Scopus. The search yielded 4037 articles in total after deduction of duplication. A total of 140 articles were included in the study following title, abstract screening and full text review. The review identified a sparse but growing literature of economic evaluations related to vaccine interventions in Africa. Only a handful of countries are represented in the articles published, implying a very low production of (and likely a low demand for) economic evaluation evidence. Authorship of the articles is led mostly by researchers from institutions based outside Africa, mostly in North America and Europe. Funding of studies is mostly by Gates Foundation, Gavi, PATH, Wellcome Trust and World Health Organisation. Production and use of economic evaluation for vaccine policy in Africa have been hampered by capacity limitations in both research and policy institutions on the continent. The use of the evidence in decision making is limited. In the sphere of vaccine policy, economic evaluation is still a fledging enterprise requiring more investment.
Esther Mazuba, Joseph Kazibwe, Joseph Chirwa et al.
In the early hours of 20 August 2026, a four-year-old girl died of diphtheria in Palermo, the first fatal case reported in Italy in more than three decades. According to reports, she and her three siblings had not been vaccinated because their parents believed that a vaccine had caused autism in a close relative. A vaccinated cousin of the same age, hospitalized with the same infection, had only mild disease. The girl had initially been assessed in an emergency department and discharged with a diagnosis of exudative tonsillitis before being readmitted as her condition deteriorated 1 . The death led to investigations into both the child's non-vaccination and the medical care she received. Cases such as this are often interpreted primarily as the consequence of individual parental decisions. That interpretation might not be wrong, but it is incomplete. This case did not result from lack of access to vaccination. It appears to have resulted from a belief that kept four children unvaccinated for years, in a country where diphtheria vaccination is legally mandatory. Individual decisions matter, but so do the responsibilities of public health institutions. The relevant question extends beyond why one family refused vaccination, to what immunization policies, and those who implement them, can do differently for all recommended vaccines.For the past two decades, vaccine hesitancy -the delay or refusal of vaccination despite the availability of services, as defined by WHO's Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) (1) -has been the dominant framework for understanding declining vaccine uptake. It replaced a crude "informed versus misinformed" dichotomy with a continuum between unquestioning acceptance and outright refusal and showed that most vaccine-hesitant individuals are not opposed to vaccination but uncertain about it, delaying some vaccines while accepting others. Behavioral models such as WHO's Behavioral and Social Drivers of Vaccination (BeSD) (2) and the 5C model (3) have since enabled a more systematic understanding of the behavioral and social determinants of vaccination. Yet the claim that vaccines cause autism, originating from a fraudulent publication that was later retracted, continues to influence vaccination decisions more than two decades later (4,5), illustrating that debunking misinformation is not enough to restore confidence. A previous commentary in Public Health Reviews argued that Europe lacks a shared framework for tackling vaccine hesitancy at the individual or systemic level (6). We take the second view: the hesitancy framework explains how people decide, but says little about what health authorities owe families before that decision hardens into non-vaccination. Palermo illustrates that limitation. We do not know what opportunities for dialogue or intervention existed for this family, or whether any were missed. But the case raises a question that extends well beyond one household: whatever their institutional form, what responsibilities do immunization programs have to identify, engage and support families before non-vaccination results in serious illness? The quality of an immunization program should not be judged solely by the vaccination coverage it achieves, but also by its capacity to recognize these early signals and respond before preventable disease occurs.The COVID-19 pandemic made the consequences of declining vaccine confidence visible. In the United States alone, misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines has been estimated to have contributed to approximately 45,000 preventable deaths and more than US$2 billion in hospital costs during 2021 (7). The pandemic also showed that more communication does not translate into more confidence: health authorities communicated more than ever before, yet an infodemic, the overload of true and false information that makes reliable information hard to find, competed with that communication at an unprecedented scale. Addressing the infodemic became a public health priority, and WHO outlined this approach (8): monitoring public concerns, information environments and behavioral trends to detect declining confidence before it translates into falling vaccine uptake. The shift is from responding to misinformation once it has already spread, to detecting emerging concerns early enough to act through dialogue, evidence and appropriate public health measures.Vaccine confidence deserves the same standing in immunization programs as procurement, delivery, surveillance and coverage monitoring. It should not be treated as a communication add-on, summoned only once confidence starts to slip. It needs to be tracked and protected all the time. Coverage is essential, but it is a late indicator; confidence can erode for months or years before it shows up in the figures. Programs that also track the behavioral and social drivers of vaccination, engage with communities and invest in trust before crises arise are better placed to notice that erosion while there is still time to act.Treating confidence as a programmatic responsibility does not amount to state paternalism over individual choice. Vaccination against a transmissible disease is not a purely self-regarding decision: an unvaccinated child is not only at risk herself, but a possible link in a chain of transmission to infants too young to be vaccinated, to people who cannot be vaccinated for medical reasons, and to anyone whose protection depends on population-level immunity. That distinction between self-regarding and other-regarding behavior grounds vaccination as a public health measure rather than an individual choice. Countries differ widely in how they translate this responsibility into law. Some enforce active mandates: Italy expanded its list of compulsory childhood vaccines to ten in 2017, reinforcing existing obligations, including diphtheria, and adding new ones, with penalties for non-compliance (9), and France followed a similar path in 2018, extending its list further since 2 . Others make no vaccines compulsory, relying instead on recommendations issued by technical bodies and implemented through more or less decentralized structures, as in Germany 3 and Switzerland 4 , where confidence carries more of the weight in the absence of legal obligation. Still others retain vaccination laws that are rarely enforced, leaving uptake to depend almost entirely on public trust. Legal mandates and public confidence are complementary rather than interchangeable: a mandate can raise coverage for the vaccines it targets, but sustaining high uptake over time, and across the vaccines no mandate covers, depends on confidence (5). One condition for that confidence is the technical independence of the advisory bodies that issue immunization recommendations. In 2025, that independence came under political pressure in both Italy and the United States: an advisory panel was dissolved in Italy over contested appointments 5 and entirely replaced in the United States amid criticism of politicized decision-making (10).The diseases that vaccination prevents have not disappeared, and most cannot realistically be eradicated. They remain merely controlled, for as long as confidence in vaccines and in institutions holds. The first signs of faltering confidence rarely appear in emergency departments. They appear earlier, when institutions trade scientific independence for political convenience, and in communities whose concerns have never been asked about. Waiting for the visible return of disease to act is, almost always, arriving too late. That lesson will only grow more urgent as new and re-emerging infectious threats require rapid, sustained vaccine uptake. Palermo should be remembered not only as an individual tragedy, but as a reminder that protecting vaccine confidence is not a communication task delegated downstream. It is a core governance function of national immunization programs, and it deserves to be resourced, measured, and defended as one.Author contributions MT conceived, drafted, and approved the final version of this manuscript and takes full responsibility for its content.The author declares that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.The author declares no conflicts of interest.The author used Claude (Anthropic, Claude Opus 5) to assist with translation and English language editing. The author reviewed all content and takes full responsibility for the manuscript.
Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health concern, particularly in underdeveloped and developing countries. The Bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine, composed of live attenuated Mycobacterium Bovis, was first introduced for human use in 1921 to protect against tuberculosis. While the vaccine is considered safe, mild adverse effects such as pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site are relatively common. Less commonly recognized, but potentially more serious, adverse reactions include regional lymphadenitis, BCG-related osteitis, and disseminated BCG infection, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems. This case report of BCG induced lymphadenitis in a 5- month-old male presented with swelling on left arm near deltoid region and left axillary area from 3 months along with discharging sinus present on neck and fever from 2 months.
