Child marriage remains a major social and developmental challenge in India, particularly in rural and economically disadvantaged communities. Although the legal age of marriage for women in India is 18 years, a substantial proportion of girls continue to marry before reaching adulthood. Tripura presents a particularly important case because the prevalence of early marriage remains considerably higher than the national average. This article examines the relationship between child marriage, educational discontinuation and the broader development of rural girls in Tripura. Using a qualitative approach based on thematic analysis of existing scholarly literature, policy documents and ethnographic accounts, the article analyses the social, economic, educational and gender-related consequences of child marriage. The discussion argues that child marriage should not be understood merely as a marriage-related social problem; rather, it is closely connected with poverty, gender inequality, school dropout, early pregnancy, limited economic opportunities, restricted decision-making and intergenerational disadvantage. The article concludes that preventing child marriage requires an integrated rural development strategy centred on girls' education, economic empowerment, community participation, improved secondary and higher-secondary education, and effective implementation of child protection legislation.
The aim of the study is to investigate: i) impact of teenage pregnancy on the girl child attending government secondary schools ii) the level of academic accomplishment of the pregnant teenagers at the public secondary schools. The research design for this study was a descriptive survey. The study population made up of 800 teen mothers. A sample of 200 teen mothers in Ethiope East Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria, who had dropped out of secondary school as a result of teen pregnancies, was chosen through simple random sampling. The instrument utilized to collect the data was questionnaire which was administered to the participants, validated by three experts and its reliability was tested using Cronbach alpha which yielded 0.68. The participants were also interviewed. The data collected were analyzed using simple percentages. The results showed that young women who became pregnant while in school face a variety of difficulties, including early marriage, rejection by the family, disassociation from former classmates, social isolation, frequent absences following pregnancies, poor academic performance, and reasons for dropping out of school. The findings revealed that teen pregnancies affect the relationship of the girl child, family and peer group and also have an impact on young girls' academic performance in public secondary schools. We deduced from the literature review that adolescent pregnancy is a widespread problem that demands attention due to its effects on the education of girls. Some recommendations were also made.
Odiri E. Onoshakpokaiye, Oboawharhe Eloho Anthonia
This study aims to give an overview of the causes and consequences of child marriage by qualitative research using in-depth interview techniques. Participants were eight girls who married during their childhood and live in Java, Indonesia. Interviews were analyzed by using content analysis techniques. The results show that underlying factors causing child marriage, include the following: (1) unwanted pregnancy; (2) the influence of parents and the surrounding environment for fear of slander and unwanted things; (3) education; and (4) economy. The consequences of child marriage include: (1) dicontinuation of education; (2) economic instability; (3) violation of law, age falsification, unregistered marriage, difficulties in obtaining birth certificates; (4) deprivation of children's liberty and autonomy; (5) psychological problems; (6) violence; and (7) health problems especially in girls.
As evidenced by universal understanding and national laws, the marriage of 18-year-old girls is a global phenomenon affecting millions. Early marriage is a violation of human rights that deprives girls of the opportunity to receive a full education, to pay for welfare, to hold modern, mature, and ultimately to choose a life partner. Early marriage is driven by poverty and affects the well-being of young girls: increased risk of sexually transmitted infections, cervical growth, intestinal disease, stillbirths, and childbirth fistula. Early marriage has limited the development of a healthy child. The fetus is more likely to be born prematurely, such as newborns, newborns, or infants. If we want to end a marriage at an early age, we need to use social media strategies and programs, spread the word, attract local religious leaders, including guardians, and equip young women with education and employment.
Mohammad Shamsul Huda, Minhaj Uddin, Md. Ebrahim Khalil et al.
Child marriage remains a deeply entrenched challenge in Bangladesh, disproportionately affecting rural girls and undermining their health, education, and economic potential. This study investigates the prevalence, drivers, and lived realities of child marriage in rural contexts, drawing on nationally representative survey data and qualitative interviews. Quantitative findings reveal a rising trend in child marriage and a strong correlation with early childbirth, food insecurity, and low paternal education. Regression analysis highlights key risk factors, including poverty, traditional gender norms, and religious affiliation, while protective factors include delayed menarche and the presence of male siblings. Qualitative insights underscore the role of social stigma, reputational anxiety, and digital exploitation in shaping marriage decisions. The study also evaluates the effectiveness of intervention strategies, finding that conditional economic incentives outperform adolescent empowerment programs in delaying marriage. Legal frameworks, particularly the ‘special provision’ clause in the Child Marriage Restraint Act (2017), are shown to be vulnerable to misuse, weakening enforcement. By integrating statistical analysis with community narratives, this research offers a nuanced understanding of child marriage in rural Bangladesh and identifies pathways for targeted, context-sensitive interventions. The findings emphasize the need for structural reforms, localized engagement, and sustained investment in education and economic resilience to disrupt the cycle of early marriage.
This paper explores the socio-cultural, economic, and legal factors driving child marriage in Pakistan and Bangladesh, focusing on how this practice perpetuates gender inequality. Despite laws prohibiting child marriage, socio-economic conditions, cultural norms, and enforcement challenges continue to sustain high rates of early marriage in both countries. This study examines the impacts of child marriage on educational attainment, economic opportunity, and health outcomes for girls, while analyzing recent policy reforms aimed at curbing this practice. The findings indicate that although both countries have taken steps to address child marriage, stronger policy enforcement, community involvement, and educational interventions are essential to promote gender equality and protect young girls from the lifelong consequences of early marriage.IntroductionChild marriage remains a significant issue in South Asia, particularly in Pakistan and Bangladesh, where cultural norms and socio-economic challenges contribute to one of the highest rates of child marriage globally. While both countries have implemented legal frameworks to prevent child marriage, these laws often lack effective enforcement, allowing the practice to persist. Child marriage not only infringes on girls’ rights but also perpetuates gender inequality, affecting educational attainment, health outcomes, and economic opportunities for women.This paper presents a comparative analysis of child marriage in Pakistan and Bangladesh, examining the root causes, societal impacts, and policy interventions aimed at addressing this issue. Through this analysis, the study aims to provide insights into potential strategies to reduce child marriage rates and promote gender equality in South Asia.Causes of Child Marriage in Pakistan and BangladeshPakistanIn Pakistan, child marriage is influenced by a complex interplay of cultural, economic, and religious factors. In rural areas, traditional beliefs regarding family honor and the perception of girls as financial burdens drive families to marry off daughters at a young age. Poverty also plays a significant role, as families struggling financially often view marriage as a way to reduce economic strain. Additionally, religious interpretations and the influence of conservative groups can complicate efforts to enforce minimum age laws for marriage (Ahmed, 2020).BangladeshBangladesh faces similar challenges, with economic factors and cultural norms strongly influencing child marriage rates. Poverty remains a critical factor, as families facing financial hardship view marriage as a means to ensure their daughters' security. Additionally, concerns about sexual harassment and family honor often lead parents to marry daughters early to protect their reputations. Although the legal age of marriage in Bangladesh is 18, weak enforcement and social acceptance of child marriage contribute to high prevalence rates (Islam, 2019).Impacts of Child Marriage on Gender InequalityEducational AttainmentChild marriage significantly impacts educational opportunities for girls in both Pakistan and Bangladesh. Early marriage often forces girls to leave school, limiting their access to education and reducing future employment prospects. In Pakistan, studies indicate that the majority of girls married before 18 drop out of school due to marital responsibilities, reinforcing the cycle of poverty and dependency. In Bangladesh, where education has been linked to delayed marriage, girls who leave school early are less likely to acquire the skills needed for economic independence, further entrenching gender inequality (Khan, 2020).Health and Well-beingChild marriage has severe health implications, including higher risks of maternal mortality, early pregnancies, and limited access to healthcare. Young brides in Pakistan and Bangladesh often lack knowledge about reproductive health, making them vulnerable to complications during pregnancy and childbirth. In Bangladesh, adolescent mothers are at higher risk of anemia and malnutrition, impacting both their health and that of their children. This cycle of poor health outcomes perpetuates gender-based health disparities, limiting girls’ long-term well-being (Rahman, 2019).Economic OpportunitiesThe economic repercussions of child marriage are profound, as girls who marry young are less likely to join the workforce or pursue income-generating activities. In Pakistan, child brides are often confined to domestic roles, with limited access to vocational training or employment opportunities. In Bangladesh, married girls face similar constraints, as early marriage disrupts education and prevents them from achieving economic self-sufficiency. This lack of economic empowerment perpetuates gender inequality, as women are unable to participate fully in economic development or decision-making (Islam, 2019).Policy and Legal FrameworksPakistan’s Legal FrameworkPakistan’s Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929), amended in 2019, sets the legal age of marriage at 18 for girls. However, enforcement remains a challenge, particularly in rural areas where conservative norms prevail. Law enforcement agencies often hesitate to intervene in cases of child marriage due to cultural and religious sensitivities, limiting the law’s effectiveness. Additionally, limited awareness among families regarding the legal ramifications of child marriage restricts compliance (Siddiqui, 2021).Bangladesh’s Legal FrameworkBangladesh implemented the Child Marriage Restraint Act in 1929, later amended in 2017, setting the legal age of marriage at 18 for girls and 21 for boys. Despite this legal framework, loopholes allow for “special circumstances,” which can lead to child marriages with parental and judicial consent. This exception has weakened enforcement efforts and allows for continued high rates of child marriage. Community awareness campaigns have been introduced to inform families of the legal age, but enforcement remains inconsistent (Rahman, 2019).Case Studies: Community and NGO InterventionsPakistan: Girls’ Education and Community AdvocacyIn Pakistan, NGOs such as Sahil and the Aurat Foundation have initiated programs that promote girls' education and raise awareness about the harms of child marriage. By engaging local leaders and religious figures in advocacy, these organizations have successfully increased community acceptance of delaying marriage. Programs that offer scholarships and vocational training to girls have proven effective in encouraging families to prioritize education over marriage, though such initiatives are limited by funding and reach (Ahmed, 2020).Bangladesh: Empowerment Programs and Economic IncentivesBangladesh has seen positive results from NGO-led initiatives such as the BRAC Adolescent Development Program, which provides life skills training, health education, and economic opportunities for girls. By creating girls’ clubs that focus on leadership skills and entrepreneurship, BRAC has empowered young girls to advocate for their rights and delay marriage. Additionally, government incentives, such as financial support for families who keep daughters in school, have contributed to reducing child marriage rates in targeted communities (Islam, 2019).Challenges and Limitations in Addressing Child MarriageSocial and Cultural ResistanceOne of the primary challenges in addressing child marriage is resistance from communities that view early marriage as a cultural or religious practice. In Pakistan, conservative communities often view government intervention as an infringement on their cultural values, limiting the effectiveness of legal enforcement. Similarly, in Bangladesh, efforts to curb child marriage are often hindered by social norms that prioritize family honor and security over the well-being of young girls (Siddiqui, 2021).Economic Constraints and Lack of ResourcesEconomic factors play a significant role in perpetuating child marriage, as poverty drives families to see marriage as a form of economic security. Both Pakistan and Bangladesh face challenges in providing financial support and resources to low-income families, limiting the impact of policy reforms. In areas where poverty is pervasive, families continue to marry off daughters at young ages as a means of reducing household financial burdens (Rahman, 2019).Enforcement ChallengesWeak enforcement mechanisms further hinder efforts to eliminate child marriage. In both countries, legal frameworks are often undermined by insufficient resources, limited training of law enforcement personnel, and lack of public awareness. Police and local authorities may be unwilling to intervene in cases of child marriage due to cultural norms or limited understanding of the law. This gap between policy and enforcement highlights the need for improved legal training and awareness initiatives (Khan, 2020).Recommendations for Reducing Child MarriageStrengthening Legal EnforcementBoth Pakistan and Bangladesh should focus on enhancing enforcement mechanisms for existing child marriage laws. This could include training law enforcement personnel on the importance of preventing child marriage, establishing monitoring systems to track cases, and promoting transparency in judicial processes. Additionally, efforts to close legal loopholes, particularly in Bangladesh, would prevent the misuse of exceptions that allow for early marriage (Siddiqui, 2021).Promoting Education and Economic EmpowermentInvesting in education and economic opportunities for girls is essential for addressing the root causes of child marriage. Governments and NGOs should expand scholarship programs, vocational training, and economic incentives for families to keep daughters in school. By empowering girls with education and skills, they are more likely to delay marriage and pursue economic independence, reducing gender inequality in the long term (Ahmed, 2020).Community Awareness and Advocacy CampaignsEngaging communities through awareness campaigns can help shift cultural perceptions around child marriage. Collaborating with local leaders, religious figures, and educators to advocate for delayed marriage and gender equality can foster community-driven change. Education campaigns that highlight the health, social, and economic benefits of delaying marriage are crucial in changing attitudes and practices in communities where child marriage is prevalent (Islam, 2019).ConclusionChild marriage remains a persistent issue in South Asia, perpetuating gender inequality and limiting opportunities for young girls. While both Pakistan and Bangladesh have implemented legal frameworks to curb child marriage, socio-cultural norms, economic challenges, and weak enforcement continue to sustain the practice. Addressing child marriage requires a multi-faceted approach that combines policy reform, community engagement, education, and economic empowerment.Efforts to empower girls through education, raise awareness within communities, and strengthen legal enforcement can contribute to reducing child marriage rates in both countries. Achieving gender equality and improving the well-being of girls in Pakistan and Bangladesh will require sustained commitment from governments, NGOs, and communities to create a future where every girl has the opportunity to reach her full potential.ReferencesAhmed, R. (2020). Community Interventions and Gender Equality in Pakistan. Journal of South Asian Gender Studies, 15(3), 145-160.Islam, N. (2019). Addressing Child Marriage in Bangladesh: Socio-Cultural and Economic Challenges. Bangladesh Journal of Social Policy, 22(2), 105-120.Khan, M. (2020). The Impact of Early Marriage on Education and Health in South Asia. Asian Journal of Development Studies, 18(1), 89-104.Rahman, F. (2019). Health Consequences of Child Marriage in Bangladesh. South Asia Medical Journal, 12(4), 210-225.Siddiqui, A. (2021). Legal and Cultural Barriers to Ending Child Marriage in Pakistan. Pakistan Law Review, 19(2), 312-327.
BACKGROUND: There is growing global evidence that girl child marriage (CM) increases during humanitarian crises. Norms, attitudes, and policies that sustain CM are deeply entrenched within families and communities, and may be further exacerbated by conflict and displacement. The purpose of this study is to understand how the social and normative environment influences attitudes and practices related to CM in two diverse humanitarian settings. METHODS: We held a total of eight focus group discussions, four in each country, with Syrian refugees in Jordan and Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh. FGDs were conducted with fathers, mothers, and adolescent boys and girls. RESULTS: Similar themes emerged from both settings. Participants discussed a desire to hold onto tradition in displacement and how norms are reinforced across generations. Social influence emerged in positive and negative ways, including peer pressure and conformity and the positive influence of host communities. In both settings, girls themselves described having little agency. Participants described resistance to change, which was exacerbated by conflict and displacement, though they discussed how social influence could be an effective way to challenge existing norms that drive the practice of girl child marriage. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings represent a more robust understanding of how norms operate within the social ecological system, and how they are reinforced across social relationships, offering an opportunity to more effectively challenge norms that sustain the practice of girl child marriage.
Jewel Gausman, Fauzia Akhter Huda, Areej Othman et al.
Can life skills be taught in early adolescence? Using a clustered randomized control trial, this study analyzes the impact of a school-based life skills intervention in grades six and seven within a sample of 2, 459 girls in Rajasthan, India. Our evidence suggests that the intervention is successful in developing stronger life skills including increased agency, more equitable gender norms, and stronger socio-emotional support. Girls also drop out of school at a lower rate: we observe an approximately 25 percent decline in dropout that persists from seventh grade through the transition to high school.
Eric V. Edmonds, Benjamin Feigenberg, Jessica Leight
BACKGROUND: Child marriage has long been a public health concern around the world, because it has the potential to deprive adolescent girls of their sexual reproductive health rights and limits their ability to reach their full potential in life. The prevalence of child marriage has been consistently higher in sub-Saharan Africa than elsewhere. However, fewer studies have explored the influence of both individual and community-level influences on early marriage in sub-Saharan Africa. This study, therefore, examined individual and community-level factors associated with child marriages in Zambia. METHODS: Data came from the Zambia Demographic and Health Surveys (ZDHS) conducted in 2007, 2013-14 and 2018. A pooled weighted sample of 9990 women aged 20-29 years was used in the analysis. Stata software version 17 was used to perform statistical analysis, taking into account complex survey design. The association between individual- and community- level factors and early marital behavior was assessed using multilevel logistic regression models. RESULTS: The prevalence of child marriage among women aged 20-29 was 44.4 percent (95% CI: 42.1, 46.7) in 2018, declining from 51.5 percent (95% CI: 48.9, 54.0) in 2007. Women with secondary or higher level of education [aOR = 0.36, 95% CI = 0.26-0.49] and [aOR = 0.07, 95% CI = 0.03-0.18] and those whose age at first birth was (15-19 year) or (20-29 years) were associated with less likelihood of experiencing child marriage. Communities with a high percentage of women who gave birth at a young age [aOR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.15-1.62] were more likely to experience child marriage. Individual and community-level characteristics accounted for 35% of the overall variations in communities' likelihood of experiencing early marriage. Even after controlling for both individual and community-level influences, the intra-class correlation revealed that around 4.5 percent of the overall variations remained unexplained. CONCLUSION: Prevalence of child marriage has reduced over the years but is still high in Zambia. Both individual and community- level factors influenced child marriage in Zambia. There is a need to strengthen strategies that keep girls in school to delay their exposure to early sexual debut and child marriage. Designing of reproductive health interventions in the country should consider integration of community factors such as economic insecurity and access to reproductive health information.
Million Phiri, Emmanuel Musonda, Liness Shasha et al.
Background: Strong social norms around early marriage put pressure on parents to marry off their adolescent girls at an early age. Early marriage is widely practiced in many parts of Ethiopia. However, early marriage studies rarely address the role of social norms. This study aims to examine the role of social norms on parents' intention to marry off adolescent girls early in Eastern Ethiopia. Method: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from September to November 2019. A multistage sampling procedure was applied to select the study participants. Factors related to parents' intention for early marriage were assessed through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Adjusted Prevalence Ratio (PR) was calculated using a log-binomial model to identify factors associated with intention toward early marriage. Results: < 0.001]. The intention for an early marriage was higher among mothers and fathers with favorable attitude towards early marriage, in those who believe that most people in their reference group conform to early marriage norms (empirical expectation), in those who believe that most people in their reference group expect them to conform to early marriage norms (normative expectation) and among fathers who did not know the legal age of marriage for adolescent girls and those who did not know the health consequences of early marriage. The prevalence of intention toward early marriage was lower among mothers (APR = 0.49; 95% CI: 0.36-0.65) and fathers (APR = 0.62; 95% CI: 0.49-0.78) in urban areas; and among mothers (APR = 0.41; 95% CI: 0.27-0.62) and fathers (APR = 0.50; 95% CI: 0.38-0.67) with higher educational level. Conclusion: The social norms that promote intention for early marriage are still high among parents, especially among those living in rural areas and uneducated. Hence, interventions that aim to reduce early marriage need to address locally relevant social norms.
