Introduction: wide regional variation in immunization coverage still persists in Nigeria. Full Immunization Coverage (FIC) for more than 80% of all states in the northern region is lower than 40% relative to their southern counterpart. Studies focusing on young women in the north remain sparse, despite the high prevalence of early marriage and poor health-seeking behavior. This study examines FIC among young women in northern Nigeria. Methods: we performed a secondary analysis of the 2013 and 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey on 1,198 women of children aged 12-23 months in 2013 and 405 in the 2018 dataset. Analysis was limited to young women 15-24 years, residing in Northern Nigeria. We used logistics regression to predict factors associated with FIC. Results: the proportion of fully immunized children was low, at 11% in 2013 and 18% in 2018. The coverage for most vaccines was low, except for the oral polio vaccine. The children of mothers who had health card [(aOR=18.1,95% C.I (8.1-40.7)], in 2013 and 2018 [(aOR=12.7, 95% C.I (5.9-27.1)], attended ANC [(aOR=8.6, 95% C.I (2.4-30.9)] in 2013 and had facility delivery [(aOR=2.0, 95% C.I (1.0-4.1)] in 2018 were more likely to be fully immunized. Conclusion: the study found FIC among children of young women in Northern Nigeria was abysmally low. Ownership of health care, antenatal attendance, and facility delivery significantly predicted the odds of FIC. These findings suggest the need for approaches that remove barriers to good health-seeking behavior, especially among young mothers in Northern Nigeria.
Alabi Matthew Ayodele, Motunrayo Idiat Fasasi, Rejoice Uche Obiora et al.
Despite safe, effective vaccines for measles and yellow fever (YF), North-Central Nigeria continues to experience escalating outbreaks. Vaccine coverage falls below the WHO 80% threshold in key states, yet the multi-level determinants — spanning cold-chain infrastructure, health worker adequacy, stockout rates, and socio-behavioural factors — remain poorly characterised. This study evaluates vaccine coverage levels, identifies infrastructure and system-level determinants of coverage gaps, and examines associations between coverage deficits and disease incidence across three North-Central Nigerian states. We conducted a cross-sectional multi-source secondary data analysis across FCT/Abuja, Nasarawa, and Plateau States using 2020–2024 vaccination coverage records from the NPHCDA DHIS2 database, infrastructure indices from state immunisation supervisory assessments, and confirmed case data from NCDC surveillance. Vaccine coverage for measles (MCV) and YF was compared against the WHO 80% target. Pearson correlation coefficients assessed associations between coverage/infrastructure indicators and disease incidence. Given the three-state analytical unit (n = 3), all correlation p-values are presented as indicative of effect size and direction rather than definitive statistical inferences. A conceptual determinants framework organised findings across three tiers: structural/system, operational, and sociobehavioural. A composite Vaccine Infrastructure and Coverage Score (VICS) was constructed as an exploratory descriptive index to rank state-level immunisation system readiness.Measles vaccine coverage ranged from 74% (Nasarawa) to 88% (FCT/Abuja); YF coverage from 69% (Nasarawa) to 84% (FCT/Abuja). No state achieved the WHO 80% YF target; only FCT/Abuja met the measles target. Coldchain functionality was 71% in Nasarawa and 76% in Plateau, versus 92% in FCT/Abuja. Vaccine stockout rates were highest in Nasarawa (39%) and Plateau (33%). Strong inverse associations were observed between measles coverage and measles incidence (r = −1.000; p = 0.017) and between YF coverage and YF incidence (r = −0.993; p = 0.073). Stockout rate was positively associated with measles incidence (r = 0.999; p = 0.033). Nasarawa recorded the lowest composite VICS (64.2/100), consistent with its highest dual-disease incidence burden. Vaccine coverage gaps in North-Central Nigeria are primarily associated with cold-chain infrastructure failures, high stockout rates, and health worker inadequacy rather than socio-behavioural barriers alone. Nasarawa State is the priority intervention target. Urgent coordinated investments in cold-chain rehabilitation, zero-dose child identification through DHIS2 microplanning, and integrated measles–YF SIAs are recommended. KEYWORDS: measles vaccine coverage; yellow fever vaccine coverage; cold-chain; stockout; health worker adequacy; Nigeria; immunisation determinants; NPHCDA; DHIS2; vaccine-preventable diseases
Vincent-Vera Okwosa, Abah Michael Idoko, Adamu Ishaku Akyala et al.
Background: Infectious diseases are frequent and sometimes deadly in sickle cell disease (SCD) patients. Some of these infectious diseases could be avoided through immunisation, but an immunisation schedule for children with SCD is not available in Gabon. Aim: This study looked into the determinants of immunisation in children with SCD in Libreville. Setting: This work was performed in five healthcare facilities in Libreville. Methods: A cross-sectional study on knowledge, attitudes, and practices was conducted from February 2019 to September 2019 in Libreville healthcare facilities, targeting children under 18 years with SCD. Results: A total of 172 parents of children with SCD participated. The average age of children was 7.1 ± 4.2 years, with a sex ratio of 1:36. Immunisation status was considered complete for 87.9% (95% CI = 79.8–93.1) according to the Expanded Programme of Immunisation (EPI) schedule. Only 49 (28.5%) parents understood SCD complications, and 39 (22.7%) knew how to prevent them. Immunisation coverage was better for children near public health centres (p = 0.008). For non-EPI vaccines, coverage improved for children of married parents (p = 0.041) and those seen by paediatricians in private facilities (p = 0.046). Multivariate analysis indicated that marital status, a lack of knowledge, facility access, and high vaccine costs predicted immunisation coverage. Conclusion: Immunisation coverage of children with SCD was better than the national immunisation coverage in Gabon. Contribution: This study unravels the need for Gabon to improve its immunisation programmes in public healthcare facilities.
Edgard Brice Ngoungou, Ulrick Bisvigou, Jean Engohang‐Ndong et al.
Introduction: Lidocaine–prilocaine cream effectively reduces vaccination pain, improving vaccination adherence and advocating for its routine use in healthcare settings. Methods: This review used PRISMA guidelines and the PICOT format to structure the analysis. The focus was on paediatric patients aged 0–12 months requiring intramuscular vaccinations, comparing the application of lidocaine–prilocaine cream to other interventions or no treatment. Data sources included MEDLINE, PUBMED, EMBASE, BMC, Research GATE, and Cochrane Library. Studies were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, with data extracted regarding participant demographics, pain assessment scales, and study conclusions. The Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool assessed study quality, while statistical analyses evaluated the effectiveness of the intervention. Results: Fifty studies were identified, with nine ultimately included in the analysis, involving 704 participants. The primary outcome was the effectiveness of lidocaine–prilocaine cream in reducing pain after vaccinations. Results showed a significant mean difference of −1.719 in pain scores for infants treated with lidocaine–prilocaine compared to those receiving other interventions. Behavioural indicators, such as crying duration and latency to the first cry, favoured the lidocaine–prilocaine group. Conclusions: Lidocaine–prilocaine cream effectively reduces vaccination pain, supporting its routine use in healthcare settings. Engaging parents can enhance vaccination adherence. Training healthcare professionals on lidocaine–prilocaine cream application and pain scales is vital for improving patient satisfaction. Further research is needed to evaluate the long-term effects of lidocaine–prilocaine cream on vaccination experiences and infant behavioural health.
Claudia-Felicia Pop, Alina Petronela Bouari-Coblișan, Valentina Sas et al.
Despite South Africa's substantial investments in and efforts at ensuring universal access to immunisation services, progress has stalled and remains suboptimal across provinces and districts. An additional challenge is posed by the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which has disrupted immunisation services globally, including in South Africa. While there is growing evidence that missed opportunities for vaccination (MOV) are a major contributor to suboptimal immunisation progress globally, not much is known about the burden and determinants of MOV in the South African context. Herein, we make a case for assessing MOV as a strategy to address current immunisation coverage gaps while mitigating the adverse impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on immunisation services. We illustrate a practical implementation research approach to assessing the burden of MOV among children in primary care settings; for understanding the factors associated with MOV; and for designing, implementing, and evaluating context-appropriate quality improvement interventions for addressing missed opportunities. Such efforts are vital for building health system resilience and maintaining immunisation programme capacity to optimally deliver essential health services such as routine childhood immunisation, even during pandemics.
Chukwudi A Nnaji, Charles Shey Wiysonge, Maia Lesosky et al.
BACKGROUND: To investigate the validity of parent reported influenza vaccination and provider reporting to the Australian Immunisation Register (AIR) in children with special risk medical conditions (SRMC). METHODS: Cross-sectional survey with parents of children with a SRMC aged ≥ 6 months and <18 years attending the Women's and Children's Hospital, Adelaide, Australia from September 2015 to February 2016. Children aged <7 years provided data to assess provider-AIR reporting. Influenza vaccination status was ascertained from the child's parent, immunisation provider and the AIR. Concordance was made using the Kappa index and the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value were calculated. RESULTS: 389 and 395 parent-provider influenza vaccination records were available for 2014 and 2015 respectively. 78% of parent reported vaccinations were substantiated by a provider with the kappa indicating good (κ = 0.677) to very good agreement (κ = 0.814) for 2014 and 2015 respectively. Discordance was higher in 2014, largely attributable to parents over reporting vaccination. More fathers over reported compared to mothers (Fisher's exact = 0.052). There were 241 provider-AIR influenza vaccination records. Sensitivity of the AIR to reflect a child's influenza immunisation status was low (32.6%). CONCLUSIONS: Parental report over estimates confirmed influenza vaccination status and is affected by time and relationship to the child. Only a third of influenza vaccinations were reported to the AIR. Timely accurate data is critical to facilitate vaccination and evaluate program coverage.
Jane Tuckerman, Nigel W. Crawford, John William Lynch et al.
BACKGROUND: The WHO Regional Office for the Africa Regional Immunization Technical Advisory Group, in 2011, adopted the measles control and elimination goals for all countries of the African region to achieve in 2015 and 2020 respectively. Our aim was to track the current status of progress towards measles control and elimination milestones across 15 west African countries between 2001 and 2019. METHODS: We did a retrospective multicountry series analysis of national immunisation coverage and case surveillance data from Jan 1, 2001, to Dec 31, 2019. Our analysis focused on the 15 west African countries that constitute the Economic Community of West African States. We tracked progress in the coverage of measles-containing vaccines (MCVs), measles supplementary immunisation activities, and measles incidence rates. We developed a country-level measles summary scorecard using eight indicators to track progress towards measles elimination as of the end of 2019. The summary indicators were tracked against measles control and elimination milestones. FINDINGS: The weighted average regional first-dose MCV coverage in 2019 was 66% compared with 45% in 2001. 73% (11 of 15) of the west African countries had introduced second-dose MCV as of December, 2019. An estimated 4 588 040 children (aged 12-23 months) did not receive first-dose MCV in 2019, the majority (71%) of whom lived in Nigeria. Based on the scorecard, 12 (80%) countries are off-track to achieving measles elimination milestones; however, Cape Verde, The Gambia, and Ghana have made substantial progress. INTERPRETATION: Measles will continue to be endemic in west Africa after 2020. The regional measles incidence rate in 2019 was 33 times the 2020 elimination target of less than 1 case per million population. However, some hope exists as countries can look at the efforts made by Cape Verde, The Gambia, and Ghana and learn from them. FUNDING: None.
Oghenebrume Wariri, Esin Nkereuwem, Ngozi Adaeze Erondu et al.
Background: Conditional cash transfers (CCTs) are interventions which provide assistance in the form of cash to specific vulnerable groups on the condition that they meet pre-defined requirements. The impact of conditional cash transfers on children's access to health services and on their overall health has not been established in sub-Saharan Africa. Method: We conducted a systematic review aimed at summarising the available information on the impact of conditional cash transfers on health service utilisation and child health in sub-Saharan Africa. We searched databases for peer-reviewed articles, websites of organisations involved in implementing conditional cash transfer programmes, and Google scholar to identify grey literature. Records were selected based on predefined eligibility criteria which were drawn from a programme impact framework. Records were eligible if one of the following outcomes was evaluated: health services utilisation, immunisation coverage, growth monitoring, anthropometry, illness reported, and mortality. Other records which reported on important intermediate outcomes or described mechanisms significantly contributing to impact were also included in the review. Data items were extracted from eligible records into an extraction form based on predefined data items. Study quality indicators were also extracted into a quality assessment form. Results: Thematic narrative synthesis was conducted using data from nine included records. The review included five cluster randomised evaluations, one quasi-experimental clustered study, one randomised trial at the individual level, one mixed-method study and one purely qualitative study. There was insufficient evidence of an impact of conditional cash transfers on health service utilisation. There was also not enough evidence of an impact on nutritional status. No impact was observed on health status based on illness reports, nor on immunisation rates. None of the included records evaluated the impact on childhood mortality. Conclusions: The findings of this review suggest that a positive impact may be observed in health service utilisation and nutrition, however, this may not translate into improved child health. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms and pathways by which these interventions work, explore the effect of contextual factors on their impact, and assess their cost implication especially within resource-constrained settings.
Chukwuemeka Onwuchekwa, Kristien Verdonck, Bruno Marchal
Background: In order to know the causes for non-immunisation, search for societal reasons for primary immunisation along with evaluating coverage. Aim of this current study is to determine the immunisation status of children between 2-5 years of age who are attending teaching health care centre with concern to both National Immunisation Schedule and Optional vaccines. Methods: Study analysed the children's immunisation status, factors affecting their immunisation coverage, and reasons for partial or incomplete immunisation. The information was obtained from the parents using a questionnaire. Information such as socio-demographic variables, immunisation status, causes of their partial immunisation and lack of immunisation. The "vaccination card and the recall" approach was used to determine the recipient's immunisation status. Results: Study found that 70.4% of children had received all recommended vaccinations. Lack of information and ignorance are significant contributors to under-immunization. Other statistically significant contributing factors for the low immunisation coverage include female gender, rural background, low socioeconomic status, born at home, lower mother age, and being from a joint household. BCG vaccination coverage was higher than pentavalent vaccine coverage, probably because of multiple doses needed. Only 77% of kids received vitamin A solution. Conclusions: Paediatrician should mention the next vaccination date and dose at each appointment in order to lower the vaccination dropouts. Parents should be informed regarding the date of vaccination of their child through SMS message, calls, and social media groups.
Abstract Background Persistent inequities in immunisation coverage, particularly among zero-dose and under-immunised children, continue to challenge Pakistan’s Expanded Programme on Immunisation. Weak feedback loop, inconsistent data quality, and limited real-time monitoring impede effective decision-making. This Implementation Research was conducted under the MAINSTREAM Initiative funded by Alliance for Health Policy and Systems Research (AHPSR) and supported by the Aga Khan Community Health Services Department and National Institutes of Health Pakistan to design, implement, and evaluate a digital monitoring and action planning tool to strengthen data-driven decision-making within routine immunisation systems. Methodology/Principal Findings A co-creation approach was employed to design a digital monitoring solution through inclusive consultations, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions with EPI Punjab at provincial and district levels. The solution included a customized mobile application for data collection and a Power BI visualization dashboard to map low-coverage areas, identify drivers of dropouts and zero-dose children, and capture caregivers’ information sources to inform targeted communication. The intervention was piloted in 60 households across six clusters of a Union Council of District Lahore. Advanced analytics identified reasons for non-vaccination and missed opportunities, generating tailored recommendations and practical plans for program managers. The analysis assessed acceptability, adoption, fidelity, and perceived scalability through field observations, system use, and stakeholder feedback. The co-developed digital tool enhanced visibility of coverage gaps through UC-level mapping, real-time dashboards, and structured action planning. Pilot testing in Lahore showed strong acceptability, ease of use, fidelity, and adaptability among managers, supervisors, and vaccinators. Scalability and sustainability potential were demonstrated, though barriers included leadership turnover, system fragmentation, workload pressures, and resource constraints. Conclusion The tool demonstrated feasibility to strengthen immunisation equity, accountability, and responsiveness. Co-creation with stakeholders enhanced ownership, operational relevance, and adoption, while complementing existing platforms. Sustainability will depend on effective integration, local ownership, capacity building, and accountability, while scalability requires interoperability, resource commitment, policy support, and alignment with existing workflows. Author Summary Many children in Pakistan still miss routine vaccinations, especially those who have never received any vaccines or who drop out before completing the schedule. These children are often invisible within routine reporting systems, making it difficult for health managers to identify gaps and respond effectively. In this study, we developed and evaluated a digital monitoring and action planning tool designed to help immunisation managers and frontline workers better identify and respond to these gaps. We worked collaboratively with provincial and district immunisation staff to co-design a user-friendly system that combines mobile data entry with interactive dashboards for supervision and planning. The tool was piloted in an urban district of Lahore, where health workers and managers reported high acceptability and ease of use. The system helped improve visibility of missed children, supported follow-up actions, and strengthened accountability across different levels of the immunisation program. Our findings show that digitally enabled, co-created tools can strengthen routine immunisation systems by improving data use for action, supporting more responsive service delivery, and promoting equity. This work offers practical insights for scaling digital solutions to reach underserved populations and improve immunisation performance in similar low- and middle-income settings.
Mariam Zahid Malik, Naeem uddin Mian, Zahid Memon et al.
