Abstract Child, early, and forced marriage (CEFM) remains prevalent worldwide. Rates are especially high in areas affected by crisis and conflict. CEFM predominately impacts girls, who are married to adult men; it increases their vulnerability to other threats, including physical, economic, and health insecurities, and curtails access to education. Moreover, because of these resultant threats, CEFM entrenches gender inequality and compromises the extent to which girls engage in community-based crisis response and recovery, thereby undermining efforts to build inclusive, meaningful, and sustainable peace and security. In spite of this, there is little consideration of CEFM in security theorizing or practice. This article explores the security-related causes and effects of CEFM on adolescent girls in conflict-affected contexts by drawing from research conducted in four crisis contexts: Lake Chad (Niger, Nigeria, and Cameroon), South Sudan and Uganda, Lebanon (Beirut), and Bangladesh (Cox's Bazar). The article argues that, using an age-responsive critical feminist security framework, clear links can be made between gender inequality, CEFM in adolescent girls, and security.
The Population Council COVID-19 study team is implementing rapid phone-based surveys of a representative sample of girls living in the catchment area of two skills-building programs. The two programs (one with UNFPA, the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs; and the second with UNICEF and the Ministry of Education/DSHE) are affiliated with the UNFPA-UNICEF Global Programme to Accelerate Action to End Child Marriage. The overall goal of the programs is to prevent child marriage. The rapid assessment will explore how the pandemic and associated lockdown is changing girls' experience of schooling, time use, care responsibilities and household scarcity as mediating pathways to child marriage. The objectives are to assess COVID-19-related knowledge, attitudes, and practices; track changes over time; identify barriers to social distancing behavior change; and assess impact on lives and livelihoods. The multi-round survey of 960 adolescent girls includes questions on age, education, marital status, knowledge and attitudes, disruption due to school closing, risks related to violence and mental health, and resources needed during lockdown. In later rounds, we intend to include questions on service access for sexual and reproductive health and rights, stigma associated with disease acquisition, and compliance with social distancing.
Early marriage is a total destruction to the human rights of children. Contrary to the conviction that child marriage in rural, developing countries is inextricably linked with their cultural backwardness, violence against women need to be examined and addressed in terms of the specific socio-economic and cultural conditions as to why girls, adolescents and young women are forced to live and marry in their young age. This article examines two shorts stories from Indonesia to be analyzed comparatively with another story from Bangladesh to show the limit of mainstream feminist perspectives that often put the blame on minority cultures. The present study reveals that first, child marriages in both countries are largely driven by such factors as poverty, economic dependency, lack of education, and dowry in Bangladeshs case. Secondly, the ways in which authors depict child marriages vary, i.e. it is either perpetuating the violence in child marriage, or critically depicting child marriage as an aberrant patriarchal practice. Taken together, the child brides play their respective role as victor, survivor, or victim.
This study explored the reasons for persistence of child marriage among Maasai girl-students in Tanzania. Three research questions guided this study, namely: Why does girl students’ marriage among the Maasai community of Tanzania continue to exist? What is the position of education stakeholders in protecting girls from child marriage? What strategies should be taken to address child marriage in the Maasai community? The study employed qualitative research approach where a case study design was used to explore the problem. It adopted interviews, focus group discussion and observations as research methods. Purposive and snowball sampling strategies were employed to get 39 participants who were involved in this study. Data were analysed qualitatively through thematic analysis strategies. The findings revealed that child marriage is still practiced in the Maasai community where the legible age for marriage of Maasai girls range from 6 to 15 years depending on the number of competing men and the economic status of the family of the boy or girl. Society members employ persuasion and pressure, transfer of students, pregnancy and corruption to enable marriage of Maasai girl students. In addition, the findings revealed that Maasai traditions and customs, fear of early pregnancies, corruption and irresponsibility of leaders, poverty and undervaluing of education are the factors contributing to persistence of child marriage among the Maasai girl students. The study recommends that the government in collaboration with other stakeholders should aggressively implement laws protecting children. A close monitoring of local leaders’ actions by top government leaders to help combating child marriage is also recommended. Moreover, joint efforts are needed to educate society members and girl-students on the negative impact of child marriage and the importance of girls’ education.
Child marriage remains a major social and developmental challenge in India, particularly in rural and economically disadvantaged communities. Although the legal age of marriage for women in India is 18 years, a substantial proportion of girls continue to marry before reaching adulthood. Tripura presents a particularly important case because the prevalence of early marriage remains considerably higher than the national average. This article examines the relationship between child marriage, educational discontinuation and the broader development of rural girls in Tripura. Using a qualitative approach based on thematic analysis of existing scholarly literature, policy documents and ethnographic accounts, the article analyses the social, economic, educational and gender-related consequences of child marriage. The discussion argues that child marriage should not be understood merely as a marriage-related social problem; rather, it is closely connected with poverty, gender inequality, school dropout, early pregnancy, limited economic opportunities, restricted decision-making and intergenerational disadvantage. The article concludes that preventing child marriage requires an integrated rural development strategy centred on girls' education, economic empowerment, community participation, improved secondary and higher-secondary education, and effective implementation of child protection legislation.
The aim of the study is to investigate: i) impact of teenage pregnancy on the girl child attending government secondary schools ii) the level of academic accomplishment of the pregnant teenagers at the public secondary schools. The research design for this study was a descriptive survey. The study population made up of 800 teen mothers. A sample of 200 teen mothers in Ethiope East Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria, who had dropped out of secondary school as a result of teen pregnancies, was chosen through simple random sampling. The instrument utilized to collect the data was questionnaire which was administered to the participants, validated by three experts and its reliability was tested using Cronbach alpha which yielded 0.68. The participants were also interviewed. The data collected were analyzed using simple percentages. The results showed that young women who became pregnant while in school face a variety of difficulties, including early marriage, rejection by the family, disassociation from former classmates, social isolation, frequent absences following pregnancies, poor academic performance, and reasons for dropping out of school. The findings revealed that teen pregnancies affect the relationship of the girl child, family and peer group and also have an impact on young girls' academic performance in public secondary schools. We deduced from the literature review that adolescent pregnancy is a widespread problem that demands attention due to its effects on the education of girls. Some recommendations were also made.
Odiri E. Onoshakpokaiye, Oboawharhe Eloho Anthonia
This study aims to give an overview of the causes and consequences of child marriage by qualitative research using in-depth interview techniques. Participants were eight girls who married during their childhood and live in Java, Indonesia. Interviews were analyzed by using content analysis techniques. The results show that underlying factors causing child marriage, include the following: (1) unwanted pregnancy; (2) the influence of parents and the surrounding environment for fear of slander and unwanted things; (3) education; and (4) economy. The consequences of child marriage include: (1) dicontinuation of education; (2) economic instability; (3) violation of law, age falsification, unregistered marriage, difficulties in obtaining birth certificates; (4) deprivation of children's liberty and autonomy; (5) psychological problems; (6) violence; and (7) health problems especially in girls.
As evidenced by universal understanding and national laws, the marriage of 18-year-old girls is a global phenomenon affecting millions. Early marriage is a violation of human rights that deprives girls of the opportunity to receive a full education, to pay for welfare, to hold modern, mature, and ultimately to choose a life partner. Early marriage is driven by poverty and affects the well-being of young girls: increased risk of sexually transmitted infections, cervical growth, intestinal disease, stillbirths, and childbirth fistula. Early marriage has limited the development of a healthy child. The fetus is more likely to be born prematurely, such as newborns, newborns, or infants. If we want to end a marriage at an early age, we need to use social media strategies and programs, spread the word, attract local religious leaders, including guardians, and equip young women with education and employment.
Mohammad Shamsul Huda, Minhaj Uddin, Md. Ebrahim Khalil et al.
Child marriage remains a deeply entrenched challenge in Bangladesh, disproportionately affecting rural girls and undermining their health, education, and economic potential. This study investigates the prevalence, drivers, and lived realities of child marriage in rural contexts, drawing on nationally representative survey data and qualitative interviews. Quantitative findings reveal a rising trend in child marriage and a strong correlation with early childbirth, food insecurity, and low paternal education. Regression analysis highlights key risk factors, including poverty, traditional gender norms, and religious affiliation, while protective factors include delayed menarche and the presence of male siblings. Qualitative insights underscore the role of social stigma, reputational anxiety, and digital exploitation in shaping marriage decisions. The study also evaluates the effectiveness of intervention strategies, finding that conditional economic incentives outperform adolescent empowerment programs in delaying marriage. Legal frameworks, particularly the ‘special provision’ clause in the Child Marriage Restraint Act (2017), are shown to be vulnerable to misuse, weakening enforcement. By integrating statistical analysis with community narratives, this research offers a nuanced understanding of child marriage in rural Bangladesh and identifies pathways for targeted, context-sensitive interventions. The findings emphasize the need for structural reforms, localized engagement, and sustained investment in education and economic resilience to disrupt the cycle of early marriage.
This paper explores the socio-cultural, economic, and legal factors driving child marriage in Pakistan and Bangladesh, focusing on how this practice perpetuates gender inequality. Despite laws prohibiting child marriage, socio-economic conditions, cultural norms, and enforcement challenges continue to sustain high rates of early marriage in both countries. This study examines the impacts of child marriage on educational attainment, economic opportunity, and health outcomes for girls, while analyzing recent policy reforms aimed at curbing this practice. The findings indicate that although both countries have taken steps to address child marriage, stronger policy enforcement, community involvement, and educational interventions are essential to promote gender equality and protect young girls from the lifelong consequences of early marriage.IntroductionChild marriage remains a significant issue in South Asia, particularly in Pakistan and Bangladesh, where cultural norms and socio-economic challenges contribute to one of the highest rates of child marriage globally. While both countries have implemented legal frameworks to prevent child marriage, these laws often lack effective enforcement, allowing the practice to persist. Child marriage not only infringes on girls’ rights but also perpetuates gender inequality, affecting educational attainment, health outcomes, and economic opportunities for women.This paper presents a comparative analysis of child marriage in Pakistan and Bangladesh, examining the root causes, societal impacts, and policy interventions aimed at addressing this issue. Through this analysis, the study aims to provide insights into potential strategies to reduce child marriage rates and promote gender equality in South Asia.Causes of Child Marriage in Pakistan and BangladeshPakistanIn Pakistan, child marriage is influenced by a complex interplay of cultural, economic, and religious factors. In rural areas, traditional beliefs regarding family honor and the perception of girls as financial burdens drive families to marry off daughters at a young age. Poverty also plays a significant role, as families struggling financially often view marriage as a way to reduce economic strain. Additionally, religious interpretations and the influence of conservative groups can complicate efforts to enforce minimum age laws for marriage (Ahmed, 2020).BangladeshBangladesh faces similar challenges, with economic factors and cultural norms strongly influencing child marriage rates. Poverty remains a critical factor, as families facing financial hardship view marriage as a means to ensure their daughters' security. Additionally, concerns about sexual harassment and family honor often lead parents to marry daughters early to protect their reputations. Although the legal age of marriage in Bangladesh is 18, weak enforcement and social acceptance of child marriage contribute to high prevalence rates (Islam, 2019).Impacts of Child Marriage on Gender InequalityEducational AttainmentChild marriage significantly impacts educational opportunities for girls in both Pakistan and Bangladesh. Early marriage often forces girls to leave school, limiting their access to education and reducing future employment prospects. In Pakistan, studies indicate that the majority of girls married before 18 drop out of school due to marital responsibilities, reinforcing the cycle of poverty and dependency. In Bangladesh, where education has been linked to delayed marriage, girls who leave school early are less likely to acquire the skills needed for economic independence, further entrenching gender inequality (Khan, 2020).Health and Well-beingChild marriage has severe health implications, including higher risks of maternal mortality, early pregnancies, and limited access to healthcare. Young brides in Pakistan and Bangladesh often lack knowledge about reproductive health, making them vulnerable to complications during pregnancy and childbirth. In Bangladesh, adolescent mothers are at higher risk of anemia and malnutrition, impacting both their health and that of their children. This cycle of poor health outcomes perpetuates gender-based health disparities, limiting girls’ long-term well-being (Rahman, 2019).Economic OpportunitiesThe economic repercussions of child marriage are profound, as girls who marry young are less likely to join the workforce or pursue income-generating activities. In Pakistan, child brides are often confined to domestic roles, with limited access to vocational training or employment opportunities. In Bangladesh, married girls face similar constraints, as early marriage disrupts education and prevents them from achieving economic self-sufficiency. This lack of economic empowerment perpetuates gender inequality, as women are unable to participate fully in economic development or decision-making (Islam, 2019).Policy and Legal FrameworksPakistan’s Legal FrameworkPakistan’s Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929), amended in 2019, sets the legal age of marriage at 18 for girls. However, enforcement remains a challenge, particularly in rural areas where conservative norms prevail. Law enforcement agencies often hesitate to intervene in cases of child marriage due to cultural and religious sensitivities, limiting the law’s effectiveness. Additionally, limited awareness among families regarding the legal ramifications of child marriage restricts compliance (Siddiqui, 2021).Bangladesh’s Legal FrameworkBangladesh implemented the Child Marriage Restraint Act in 1929, later amended in 2017, setting the legal age of marriage at 18 for girls and 21 for boys. Despite this legal framework, loopholes allow for “special circumstances,” which can lead to child marriages with parental and judicial consent. This exception has weakened enforcement efforts and allows for continued high rates of child marriage. Community awareness campaigns have been introduced to inform families of the legal age, but enforcement remains inconsistent (Rahman, 2019).Case Studies: Community and NGO InterventionsPakistan: Girls’ Education and Community AdvocacyIn Pakistan, NGOs such as Sahil and the Aurat Foundation have initiated programs that promote girls' education and raise awareness about the harms of child marriage. By engaging local leaders and religious figures in advocacy, these organizations have successfully increased community acceptance of delaying marriage. Programs that offer scholarships and vocational training to girls have proven effective in encouraging families to prioritize education over marriage, though such initiatives are limited by funding and reach (Ahmed, 2020).Bangladesh: Empowerment Programs and Economic IncentivesBangladesh has seen positive results from NGO-led initiatives such as the BRAC Adolescent Development Program, which provides life skills training, health education, and economic opportunities for girls. By creating girls’ clubs that focus on leadership skills and entrepreneurship, BRAC has empowered young girls to advocate for their rights and delay marriage. Additionally, government incentives, such as financial support for families who keep daughters in school, have contributed to reducing child marriage rates in targeted communities (Islam, 2019).Challenges and Limitations in Addressing Child MarriageSocial and Cultural ResistanceOne of the primary challenges in addressing child marriage is resistance from communities that view early marriage as a cultural or religious practice. In Pakistan, conservative communities often view government intervention as an infringement on their cultural values, limiting the effectiveness of legal enforcement. Similarly, in Bangladesh, efforts to curb child marriage are often hindered by social norms that prioritize family honor and security over the well-being of young girls (Siddiqui, 2021).Economic Constraints and Lack of ResourcesEconomic factors play a significant role in perpetuating child marriage, as poverty drives families to see marriage as a form of economic security. Both Pakistan and Bangladesh face challenges in providing financial support and resources to low-income families, limiting the impact of policy reforms. In areas where poverty is pervasive, families continue to marry off daughters at young ages as a means of reducing household financial burdens (Rahman, 2019).Enforcement ChallengesWeak enforcement mechanisms further hinder efforts to eliminate child marriage. In both countries, legal frameworks are often undermined by insufficient resources, limited training of law enforcement personnel, and lack of public awareness. Police and local authorities may be unwilling to intervene in cases of child marriage due to cultural norms or limited understanding of the law. This gap between policy and enforcement highlights the need for improved legal training and awareness initiatives (Khan, 2020).Recommendations for Reducing Child MarriageStrengthening Legal EnforcementBoth Pakistan and Bangladesh should focus on enhancing enforcement mechanisms for existing child marriage laws. This could include training law enforcement personnel on the importance of preventing child marriage, establishing monitoring systems to track cases, and promoting transparency in judicial processes. Additionally, efforts to close legal loopholes, particularly in Bangladesh, would prevent the misuse of exceptions that allow for early marriage (Siddiqui, 2021).Promoting Education and Economic EmpowermentInvesting in education and economic opportunities for girls is essential for addressing the root causes of child marriage. Governments and NGOs should expand scholarship programs, vocational training, and economic incentives for families to keep daughters in school. By empowering girls with education and skills, they are more likely to delay marriage and pursue economic independence, reducing gender inequality in the long term (Ahmed, 2020).Community Awareness and Advocacy CampaignsEngaging communities through awareness campaigns can help shift cultural perceptions around child marriage. Collaborating with local leaders, religious figures, and educators to advocate for delayed marriage and gender equality can foster community-driven change. Education campaigns that highlight the health, social, and economic benefits of delaying marriage are crucial in changing attitudes and practices in communities where child marriage is prevalent (Islam, 2019).ConclusionChild marriage remains a persistent issue in South Asia, perpetuating gender inequality and limiting opportunities for young girls. While both Pakistan and Bangladesh have implemented legal frameworks to curb child marriage, socio-cultural norms, economic challenges, and weak enforcement continue to sustain the practice. Addressing child marriage requires a multi-faceted approach that combines policy reform, community engagement, education, and economic empowerment.Efforts to empower girls through education, raise awareness within communities, and strengthen legal enforcement can contribute to reducing child marriage rates in both countries. Achieving gender equality and improving the well-being of girls in Pakistan and Bangladesh will require sustained commitment from governments, NGOs, and communities to create a future where every girl has the opportunity to reach her full potential.ReferencesAhmed, R. (2020). Community Interventions and Gender Equality in Pakistan. Journal of South Asian Gender Studies, 15(3), 145-160.Islam, N. (2019). Addressing Child Marriage in Bangladesh: Socio-Cultural and Economic Challenges. Bangladesh Journal of Social Policy, 22(2), 105-120.Khan, M. (2020). The Impact of Early Marriage on Education and Health in South Asia. Asian Journal of Development Studies, 18(1), 89-104.Rahman, F. (2019). Health Consequences of Child Marriage in Bangladesh. South Asia Medical Journal, 12(4), 210-225.Siddiqui, A. (2021). Legal and Cultural Barriers to Ending Child Marriage in Pakistan. Pakistan Law Review, 19(2), 312-327.
