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The problem
Intervention: Exposure measurement and assessment of developmental milestones at 6 and 18 months; no intervention was tested
Who it was tested with: 17,683 term singleton births without congenital anomalies born in Taiwan in 2005.
Children or communities are compared with a group that did not receive the intervention, or followed over years. This is the design that best separates what the intervention did from everything else that changed.
"Developmental outcomes were assessed by conducting home interviews at 6 and 18 months of age. Gestational exposure to ambient Mn was estimated using a land-use regression model enhanced with machine learning. Associations between Mn exposure and delayed milestone attainment were evaluated using multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for child, maternal, household factors, and co-exposure to particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide." This is a prospective cohort study with exposure and outcome measurement, allowing longitudinal analysis of the association between prenatal manganese exposure and developmental delays.
Observational design cannot establish causation; exposure assessment based on statistical models rather than direct individual measurement; selective participation possible; unmeasured confounding cannot be excluded
Across countries and designs
1 study · 1 country
