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The problem
Intervention: Participation in organised enrichment-oriented out-of-school lessons (naraigoto) at varying frequencies
Who it was tested with: Japanese children in fourth grade (n=3,399) followed through sixth grade; approximately 8-12 years old.
Children or communities are compared with a group that did not receive the intervention, or followed over years. This is the design that best separates what the intervention did from everything else that changed.
"Longitudinal data from the Japanese Longitudinal Study of Children and Parents from fourth grade (baseline, 2017-2019) to sixth grade (follow-up, 2019-2021) (n = 3399)... Ordinal logistic regression models were employed for estimating odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals, and possible confounders (sociodemographic factors, baseline self-confidence) were adjusted." This longitudinal observational design with adjustment for confounders provides stronger evidence than cross-sectional data, though it remains observational rather than experimental.
The study did not randomly assign children to activity frequencies, so causality cannot be established. The study excludes academic tutoring (juku) and does not measure total time spent in activities or qualitative aspects of participation.
Across countries and designs
1 study · 1 country
