Child labour is a controversial issue both in present day as well as in past societies. In historical perspective, studies focus on the factory labour of children during the industrialization process. On the one hand, its contribution to the family income is mentioned as a potential positive effect on the living standard of the whole family, on the other hand reference is made to the permanent health risks for children working in the factories. Using qualitative sources, there were contemporary testimonies supporting both views. The present paper, therefore, uses a rather quantitive approach referring to the number of working days lost due to illness, anthropometric indicators such a height and weight, the results of draft examinations as well as mortality differences and cause-of-death rates from “accidents” in urban and rural areas during the nineteenth century. Available data do not provide clear evidence of direct harmful effects of child labour; many indications point to a neutral or even positive effect.
Child labour exists in varying degrees in virtually all countries aspiring to reach high income status. The prevalence of child labour and associated criminal activities have been portrayed in the 19th century novels of Charles Dickens, perhaps most vividly in the character ‘Fagin’ in the novel ‘Oliver Twist’. It seems clear that the early years of the industrial revolution in Britain gave rise to demand for increased child labour and also provided fertile ground for criminal activities. However, it is also evident from the experience of the high-income countries that the hallowed peaks of the development process witness an end to such activities representing the dark side of income creation. This paper examines whether there is a definite relationship between country income per capita and the prevalence of crime and child labour. The presumption is that as incomes grow there is an increase in the use of child labour as well as in crime, with a tapering- off after a certain income level. This paper presents evidence for such an inverted ‘U’ relationship between child labour and income per capita as well as between the crime index and income. These findings may also throw some light on the puzzle of the sudden fall in U.S crime rates in the 1990s.
This paper explores the largely overlooked phenomenon of child labour among unaccompanied and separated children travelling from Asia and Africa toward Europe via the Western Balkan route. Drawing on qualitative field research conducted in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the study reveals that a substantial number of children engage in informal, hazardous, and exploitative work both during their journey and upon arrival in Serbia. Many undertake jobs classified as the worst forms of child labour, including dangerous physical labour, work with a high risk of injury, and involvement in illicit activities. Restrictive migration and asylum policies across transit countries push children into deep informality, leaving them invisible to protection systems and highly vulnerable to abuse by employers. Findings also show that national protection systems rarely identify child labour unless linked with suspected trafficking, resulting in inconsistent, insufficient, and reactive responses. The study highlights the urgent need for a child-rights–based approach that prioritises protection over securitisation within European migration governance.
Abstract Children were an integral part of the workforce during the British Industrial Revolution. The changing patterns of child labour as well as the causes behind its rise and fall have generated much scholarly debate. This study brings in new direct evidence on child labour from children's age certificates and school attendance records from cotton factories. We link individual children identified from these factory records with the 1851 census, and provide, for the first time, concrete evidence on the scale of the census under‐reporting of child labour in factories. We find that the British census under‐reported the true scale of children's factory employment by a third. On the basis of this finding, we further reconstruct children's labour force participation rates and occupational structure in the mid‐nineteenth century. Overall, we argue that technological change and the early Factory Acts did not diminish children's factory employment immediately nor effectively. Children continued to be a valuable labour source in factory production until at least the mid‐nineteenth century.
Today's migration is an integral part of our globalized and interconnected world, but at the same time, it is also seen as one of the most difficult challenges facing our societies. Many European countries are becoming multicultural at an unprecedented rate. In addition to the positive aspects that non-European cultures bring to Europe, certain practices go against European principles and values, such as female genital mutilation. FGM is a flagrant violation of women's rights and is considered a crime in all EU member states. According to the statements of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), on January 31, 2022, approximately 500,000 women in the EU and approximately 200 million women (adults and minors) in 31 countries worldwide have undergone some form of genital mutilation. In this article, we make an overall analysis of the migration phenomenon in the EU and how the practice of FGM can become a European problem, especially through the physical and mental health complications that appear as a result of the mutilation, as it emerges from a series of studies carried out over time in the field.
BACKGROUND: The practice of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is a deeply-rooted tradition in 30 Sub-Saharan and Middle-East countries which affects approximately 200 million women and girls worldwide. The practice leads to devastating consequences on the health and quality of life of women and girls in both the short and long term. Globalizing processes and migration flows have recorded cases of this practice worldwide representing for healthcare professionals an emerging challenge on how to approach their healthcare in a transcultural, ethical and respectful way. No survey to assess knowledge, attitudes and practices on FGM among primary healthcare professionals has been conducted in the Valencian region of Spain to date. METHODS: The main purpose of this study is to assess the perceptions, knowledge, practices and attitudes of the primary healthcare professionals in relation to FGM in the Clínic-Malvarrosa healthcare area of Valencia. A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted based on a self-administered questionnaire to general practitioners, paediatricians, nurses, midwives, gynaecologists, social workers and others. RESULTS: A total of 321 professionals answered the questionnaire. Less than 5% of professionals answered that they had ever found a case of FGM during their professional practice and 21.8% answered that they had ever worked with population at risk of FGM. Almost 15% of professionals answered that they had received training on FGM but of those who had received training, only 22.7% correctly identified the typology of FGM and less than 5% correctly identified the geographical area. Only 6.9% of the respondents admitted to know some protocol of action, being midwives, paediatricians and social workers the most aware professionals of such protocols. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that FGM is a problem present in the population attending primary healthcare services in Valencia. However, the professionals showed a profound lack of knowledge around concept, typology, countries of prevalence of FGM and existent protocols of action. It is healthcare professional duty to recognize this situation and to follow the right protocols of action, refer these women and their families to the most appropriate services and professionals that fit their needs, ensuring a multidisciplinary, positive and transcultural care for these families.
Alba González-Timoneda, Vicente Ruiz Ros, Marta González-Timoneda et al.
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) remains a critical global health and human rights issue, with more than 200 million women and girls affected worldwide. Despite increased awareness and international efforts to eradicate the practice, FGM persists across various cultural and geographic contexts, particularly in parts of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. This review examines the multifaceted impact of FGM on female sexual health, drawing from clinical, psychological, and sociocultural perspectives to provide a comprehensive analysis of its consequences. FGM encompasses a range of procedures involving partial or total removal of external female genitalia or injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. The practice has profound and lasting implications on sexual function, including diminished libido, dyspareunia (pain during intercourse), anorgasmia, and reduced genital sensitivity. These outcomes stem from both anatomical alterations and psychological trauma, leading to a complex interplay of physical and emotional dysfunction. Further, FGM is associated with complications such as chronic infections, scarring, and obstetric trauma, which exacerbate sexual discomfort and reproductive challenges. Psychologically, women with FGM may experience anxiety, depression, body image disorders, and post-traumatic stress, all of which further impair sexual well-being. Cultural taboos and stigma surrounding sexuality often silence affected women, impeding access to medical and psychological support. This review highlights the urgent need for culturally sensitive healthcare services, trauma-informed counselling, and legal frameworks to support survivors. It also emphasizes the importance of comprehensive sex education and community-driven advocacy to combat FGM. Addressing the sexual health repercussions of FGM is essential to promoting bodily autonomy, gender equity, and holistic well-being.
Oghogho.P. Izekor, Oyindamola Fagbore, Chinemelum Uzochukwu et al.
Since October 2015, it has been mandatory in England and Wales to report female genital mutilation (FGM) in girls aged <under 18 to the police. The British Association for Sexual Health and HIV Adolescent Special Interest Group conducted a UK-wide survey of healthcare professionals aiming to capture experience of FGM reporting.
A total of 76 responses were received over a 4-week period. Ninety per cent of respondents worked in sexual health services; responses were also received from contraception …
Jane Ashby, Ania Richardson, Daniela Brawley et al.
Background Female genital mutilation affects an estimated 200 million women and girls worldwide. This article examines a midwife-led service that integrates health advocates and counsellors into a model of holistic woman-centred care and was the blueprint for new national clinics opened in 2019. Methods This retrospective case note review examined referral patterns, clinical findings and interventions over 11 years at a UK specialist clinic for non-pregnant women with female genital mutilation. Results More than 2000 consultations were conducted. Two thirds of women had type 3 mutilation. Most were Somali (73.4%) with 18 other ethnic backgrounds represented. Women presented with dysuria, dyspareunia/apareunia, dysmenorrhea, recurrent infections, post-traumatic stress disorder, nightmares, flashbacks and psychosexual issues. Interventions included deinfibulation under local anaesthetic (many as same day walk-in cases), clinical reports for asylum applications and trauma counselling. One in 10 attendees were healthcare professionals/carers. Nearly 5% were refugees/asylum seekers. There were 12 safeguarding referrals, three cases of mandatory reporting duty and two protection orders. Intersectional violence was frequently reported among women of West African origin. Conclusions Significant numbers of non-pregnant women require specialist help. Innovative means to publicise clinics and routine enquiry during gynaecological consultations and GP registration, could ensure earlier signposting to services. Deinfibulation can be safely performed by an expert midwife in a community or outpatient setting.
Abstract Background Parents and caregivers belonged to those with the highest burdens during the COVID-pandemic. Considering the close link between parental stress and child maltreatment, identifying families with high parental stress is of utmost importance to prevent violence against children. Within this study, we thus aimed to investigate the interplay of parental stress, changes in parental stress, and physical violence against children during the second year of the COVID-pandemic on an exploratory level. Methods We conducted a cross-sectional, observational study in Germany from July to October 2021. By using different sampling steps, a representative probability sample of the German population was generated. A subsample of these participants with children under the age of 18 was included for analysis within this study (N = 453, 60.3% females, Mage = 40.08; SD = 8.53). Results Higher parental stress levels were associated with more physical violence against children, higher levels of own experiences of child maltreatment, and mental health symptoms. An increase in parental stress during the pandemic was associated with female sex, the use of physical violence against children, and parental experience of child maltreatment. Parents who have ever used physical violence against their children have been characterized by higher parental stress levels, a stronger increase in parental stress during the pandemic, own experience of child maltreatment, mental health symptoms and sociodemographic characteristics. Higher parental stress levels, a stronger increase of parental stress during the pandemic, having pre-existing psychiatric disorders, and parental experience of child maltreatment predicted an increased use of physical violence against children during the pandemic. Conclusions Our results underscore the importance of parental stress for the risk of physical violence against children, more so in times of overall increased stress due to the pandemic and underline the need for low threshold support for families at risk in times of crises.
Alina Geprägs, David Bürgin, Jörg Michael Fegert et al.
