BACKGROUND: Violence against children (VAC) remains an urgent global dilemma and researchers and policymakers alike continue to work tirelessly to devise strategies aiming to end VAC. However, the perspectives and expertise of children themselves remain underrepresented in the drafting and implementation of these strategies against VAC. This paper draws attention to the marginalization of children living outside of family care and centers their perspective. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to characterize the forms of violence experienced by children living outside the family setting in Uganda, from the perspective of children themselves. The paper seeks to position the voicing of this perspective as a form of resistance against VAC from a decolonial perspective. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: The participatory research process included a total of 94 participants in various urban study sites in Kampala, Uganda. METHODS: The research team completed this qualitative study within a youth-driven participatory action research (YPAR) framework. Data collection techniques included interviews, focus groups, participatory visual methods and social cartography. RESULTS: Children living outside of family care experience grave forms of emotional, physical and sexual violence. Child participants present survival strategies that can inform future research and policies on violence prevention practice. CONCLUSIONS: The illustration of explicit violence outlined in this study represents a form of resistance children take against their perpetrators. The participatory youth researcher team urges future research and policy addressing VAC in Uganda to center these perspectives and expertise of children and adolescents in both programmatic and research initiatives aiming to end violence against children.
Amy E. Ritterbusch, Laura Liévano-Karim, Rachel Budker et al.
BACKGROUND: Evidence shows that parenting behaviours, including the use of violent discipline, can be changed through programmatic interventions. This study seeks to examine how policymakers and service providers in Tanzania perceive the provision of parenting support as a strategy to prevent violence against children and what the enabling and hindering factors are for the scale-up of existing evidence-based parenting supports. It does this by applying Daly's analytical framework for parenting support. METHODS: Qualitative research was undertaken, with interviews conducted with 20 key informants consisting of purposively sampled policymakers and service providers. The interview data were analysed using inductive and deductive coding and analysis. RESULTS: The most prominent enabling factors noted for the scale-up of parenting support interventions in Tanzania include the existing supportive political commitment, the interventions currently on offer at the programmatic level, and the perceived understanding of Tanzanian caregivers of the importance of parenting and, thereby, a willingness to change. Current factors hindering the scale-up include the lack of a common understanding of what evidence-based parenting programmes entail, inadequate provision of human and financial capital to implement the programmes using community resources and deeply engrained social norms around adultism and gender. CONCLUSION: Daly's analytical framework allowed us to examine barriers and facilitators to scale-up the provision of parenting support to prevent violence against children, based on the viewpoints of policymakers and service providers. Understanding these barriers and facilitators will allow Tanzanian policymakers and service providers to further close the gap between the policies and the actual implementation of evidence-based parenting support programmes aimed at preventing violence against children.
Sabine van Tuyll van Serooskereken Rakotom, Kija Nyalali, Joyce Wamoyi et al.
BACKGROUND: Despite their right to protection, children in refugee settings face various forms of violence, including physical, sexual, and emotional violence. OBJECTIVE: This study examined the factors associated with childhood violence (before turning 18) in refugee settings of Ethiopia, guided by the socioecological framework. METHODS: The study used data from the 2024 Ethiopia Humanitarian Violence Against Children and Youth Survey (HVACS). This cross-sectional survey included females and males aged 13-24 years. We estimated a mixed-effects regression model to examine the correlates associated with experiencing violence in childhood in the refugee camps by taking into account camp-level clustering. RESULTS: The study involved a total of 3473 respondents (1937 females and 1536 males) and revealed that about one in three (33.3%; 95% CI: 27.5, 39.6) had experienced childhood violence; the highest proportion 29.1% [23.1,35.9] reported experiencing physical violence, followed by emotional violence (12.4% [8.5,17.8]) and sexual violence (6.6% [5.3,8.1]). Correlates of experiencing childhood violence included being an orphan, having any form of disability, witnessing intimate partner violence against women, and having family members who were killed or died unnaturally. In contrast, households headed by women and children living in families with two or more rooms, had a lower likelihood of experiencing childhood violence. At the community level, witnessing violent attacks in the village was associated with a higher likelihood of experiencing childhood violence. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood violence is prevalent in refugee settings in Ethiopia and is associated with factors occurring at multiple levels, suggesting for individual-, household-, and community - level prevention and response strategies.
Violence Against Children (VAC) is a growing public health and social development problem recognized globally and specifically in Uganda. The general research objective of this study was to examine how the community formal and non-formal systems and practices are functioning to prevent and respond to Violence against Children in Uganda, based on the lived experiences and perceptions of children. The study adapted a Participatory Action Research (PAR) methodology of social inquiry that produced unique, in-depth, multi- faceted investigation of the phenomena and allowed for knowledge integration and personal understanding of individuals and society. The study focused on a general epistemology of the lived experiences of children, most especially girls, that allowed us to learn more about the inward and outward consciousness of children based on memory, image and meaning in understanding children’s perceptions in preventing and responding to violence. The study was conducted in Nabukalu community, Bugiri District in Eastern Uganda. A total of 140 respondents who included children ages 12 to17 years of age and adults (protection committees, civil society agencies engaged in child protection work and local government authorities) participated in the study. Findings indicate that the forms of violence that were predominant in this community include: child marriages, child labour; sexual abuse, defilement, child neglect and child sacrifice/murder for ritual purposes. While girls were found to be at more risk of defilement and child marriages, boys were more at risk of child labour and corporal punishment. Children cited the lack of basic needs such as sanitary pads for girls, food, shoes, clothing, books and decent school uniform as a predisposing factor to sexual abuse, because such needs compelled the girls to accept gifts from potential abusers. Overall, the common impacts of violence against children cutting across different ages and sexes were: emotional distress, poor performance in school, dropping out of school, injury, unwanted teenage pregnancy and child marriages. The most common risk factors identified by the children include: harmful social norms and practices (especially towards girls), domestic violence, lack of parenting and communication skills, leading to poor parenting; household poverty, leading to failure to provide basic necessities for children; child neglect and peer influence. The leading protective factors mentioned by both children and adults include presence of the Child Protection Committee (CPC), positive parenting, positive social norms and beliefs, presence of religious institutions, access to education and children’s self-protection. A majority of the children knew where to report in case of violations of their protection rights but were not satisfied with quality of services they were receiving. There is strong collaboration and coordination of child protection efforts in the community through the child protection committee, but lack of capacities and resources undermined the committees’ efforts. I recommended that capacities and interventions that will lead to positive parenting, transforming social norms, life skills for children and economic empowerment for families, among others, be strengthened to ensure that children are protected and thrive in a safe and secure environment in order for them to fulfil their rights. I contend that to achieve meaningful and sustainable outcomes to violence reduction, agencies will need to adapt integrated and comprehensive interventions in a single community based on a social ecological model as opposed to isolated and stand-alone interventions scattered in many communities with limited or no sustainable outcomes. Key words: Violence against children, Child protection, Risk factors, Protective factors, abuse, Child protection system, referral
Early pregnancy is a challenge for girls in Kenya that often has immediate effects on their educational opportunities, future implications for their social, health, and economic outcomes, and negative impacts on their children. For girls to achieve well-being in early and late adolescence, no single-sector intervention—whether education, health, wealth creation, or prevention of violence—will be adequate. The Adolescent Girls Initiative–Kenya (AGI-K) delivered multisectoral interventions to over 6,000 girls aged 11–15 in two marginalized areas of Kenya: the Kibera informal settlement in Nairobi and Wajir County in Northeastern Kenya. These interventions were carried out for two years (2015–17) and comprised a combination of girl-level, household-level, and community-level interventions. The two-year follow-up results largely confirmed the AGI-K theory of change and held up the view that an investment in early adolescents among the right groups of marginalized girls would have short-term benefits on asset accumulation, educational attainment, and household economic status that translated into longer-term impact on delaying childbearing. This report describes the intervention and research design of AGI-K, and presents the impact findings from the two-year follow-up data.
Karen Austrian, Erica Soler‐Hampejsek, Beth P. Kangwana et al.
In Silale Ward, Tiaty Sub-County, early marriage continues to affect many girls. Data shows that about 27% of girls aged between 13 and 17 years have entered into marriage before the legal age. This situation often exposes them to emotional pressure, stress, and other psychosocial challenges. This study therefore sought to examine the association between faith-based coping and the psychological well-being of girls affected by child marriage in Silale Ward, Baringo County. The study was guided by Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping. A descriptive cross-sectional design was used. The study targeted 530 girls aged 13-17 years who were in education or rehabilitation programs. Using snowball sampling, 106 girls took part in the study. A questionnaire was used to collect data. It included adapted items from Ryff’s Scales of Psychological well-being and questions on faith-based coping. Ethical procedures were observed. The study got approval from the relevant authorities. Participation was voluntary while assent and consent were also sought. Girls who needed further support were linked to counseling and child protection services. The findings of this study may help mental health workers, NGOs, and religious leaders to design support programs that fit the local context. The study also supports efforts toward SDG 3 on good health and SDG 5 on gender equality. It recognizes that child marriage is a violation of children’s rights.
Forced child marriage and limited access to education remain significant challenges for Maasai girls in Kenya and is deeply entrenched in cultural traditions and economic factors. In Kenya, 4% of girls are married before age 15, and 23% before age 18. Among the Maasai community in Kenya and Tanzania, over 60% of girls are married off before their eighteenth birthday. Despite the introduction of free primary education in Kenya in 2003, only 48% of Maasai girls enroll in school, and just 10% progress to secondary education. The practice of forced early marriage is primarily sustained by Maasai culture, where girls are often viewed as transient members of their families, to be married off in return for wealth, typically in the form of livestock. This cultural view, combined with poverty and a preference for educating boys, severely limits the educational opportunities available to Maasai girls. The objectives of this study include examining the negative outcomes of forced early marriage on Maasai girls’ education, analyzing how education can prevent forced early marriage and what the government of Kenya should do to help. This study adopts Human Capital Theory by Gary Becker and Theodore Schultz, which asserts that education and skill development are investments that improve individual productivity, income, and life outcomes. Studying employs a qualitative methodology, and the information is examined using Michel Foucault's critical discourse analysis.
The government of Kenya's Triple Threat strategy recognises the need for urgent intervention to address the high incidence of HIV, gender-based violence (GBV) and pregnancy among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW). We used nationally representative data among AGYW aged 13-24 (n = 1344) from the 2018-19 Kenya Violence Against Children & Youth Survey (VACS) in multivariable logistic regression analyses to examine associations between three potential protective factors - gender-equitable attitudes, food security and parental monitoring - and outcomes related to the triple threat: Intimate partner violence (IPV); sexual violence; high HIV exposure risk; adolescent pregnancy; child marriage; and not being in school or paid work. Results showed that AGYW with gender-equitable attitudes were less likely to report IPV (adjusted odds-ratio (aOR):0.47, p < 0.01) and adolescent pregnancy (aOR:0.58, p < 0.05). AGYW who were food secure were less likely to report adolescent pregnancy (aOR:0.57, p < 0.05) and child marriage (aOR:0.51, p < 0.05). Those with high parental monitoring were less likely to report IPV (aOR:0.44, p < 0.01), sexual violence (aOR:0.49, p < 0.05), adolescent pregnancy (aOR:0.61, p < 0.05), and child marriage (aOR:0.41, p < 0.01). AGYW who had gender-equitable attitudes, food security and high parental monitoring (i.e., all three factors compared to none) had lower predicted probabilities of reporting IPV (22.3% vs. 5.0%), sexual violence (20.4% vs. 6.0%), adolescent pregnancy (23.7% vs. 7.7%), and child marriage (10.0% vs. 1.6%). The findings indicate that improving gender-equitable attitudes, food security and parental monitoring may positively impact multiple outcomes related to the triple threat; and that addressing all three may have the greatest impact.
Brendan Maughan‐Brown, Boladé Hamed Banougnin, Madison T. Little et al.
The assumed inability of adolescents to voluntarily consent to marriage is a key definition of child marriage. Using ethnography, this study approaches consent, self-determination, and fulfillment as dependent on the ability to make choices, not only between actual alternatives but also between perceived alternatives. In contexts of severe poverty, more attention is needed to the lack of viable alternatives open to families, and their motives in this context. In this study, 171 persons were interviewed in two majority-Muslim neighborhoods in Dar es Salaam. Some girls reported wanting to marry early, since poverty forces them to become adults capable of supporting themselves at roughly age 15–16, regardless of the personal wishes of their parents or guardians. Prior research tends to assume that early marriage prevents girls from continuing their education. This study suggests that educational opportunities are often closed off to girls before marriage. Policy recommendations given here are that organizations can more effectively address early marriage by (1) shifting the focus from legislation to urban poverty alleviation, (2) creating more employment opportunities for the poorest women in the city, (3) campaigning for more gender-equal attitudes in the informal employment sector, and (4) reducing financial costs of secondary schooling for adolescents.
BACKGROUND: The concept of 'child marriage' in global health distinguishes ostensibly harmful from healthy ages to marry at a universally-applied threshold of 18-years. With intensifying efforts to end child marriage, targeted communities are increasingly asked to change their perception of such marriages from relatively benign to profoundly problematic. The objective of this study is to understand how this shift in perception is navigated by adolescent girls and young women (AGYW). METHODS: Using qualitative data collected in 2019 from a semi-urban community in Tanzania where marriage under 18-years is common and campaigns to end child marriage ongoing, we contrast reports of lived experiences of marriage under 18-years among AGYW to views of child marriage as an abstract concept. Thirteen in-depth interviews with AGYW, as part of a wider qualitative study, were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using a framework analysis approach. RESULTS: While many AGYW had heard of child marriage, the concept was routinely conflated with forced marriage, which is rare in the community, and non-marital teenage sex and pregnancy, which are common. As a likely consequence, participants disagreed on whether or not child marriage occurs locally. Furthermore, accounts of real-life marriages under 18 sometimes aligned with, but often departed from, common narratives about the purported causes and harmful consequences inherent to the global health concept of child marriage. CONCLUSIONS: We argue that engaging with diverse local views and experiences of marrying young is essential to producing culturally-sensitive, effective initiatives addressing the vulnerabilities of female adolescence.
Susan Barris Schaffnit, Mark Urassa, Joyce Wamoyi et al.
