Child labour is one of the major obstacles to the realization of universal primary education in low- and middle-income countries. Child labour deprives children of their chances to acquire the required skills for the development of their potential. This is akin to a child trying to prepare for an exam while carrying a heavy backpack of worries, fears, and distractions on their back which affects their desired outcome. This study provided an updated review of the literature on child labour's influence on primary school pupils' enrolment. Child labour literature was explored via a scoping literature review strategy. As a result of this literature review, child labour negatively impacts primary school enrolment. This study also revealed that child labour is the major contributor to primary school pupils' dropout. Finally, this review revealed that enforcing a minimum employment age of 15 and reducing the return to child labour without providing social supports such as conditional cash transfer to the poor household would facilitate an increase in children’s dropout rate in developing countries. Based on the empirical child labour literature, more research is needed to be conducted using qualitative and quantitative measures to capture first-hand information to augment quantitative measures.
This article reports on a study that investigated the effectiveness of child labour laws intended to promote child rights and the protection of children from unfair and forced labour. Legal scholars distinguish between child work and child labour: forced child labour manifests itself in abusing children sexually, forcing children to work on farms, and compromising children’s rights to education. Although South Africa, Zimbabwe and Zambia have laws in place to protect children from child labour, the abuse of children continues in these countries. Furthermore, although these three countries are signatories to conventions of the International Labour Organisation that seek to eliminate child labour, they have been unable to stem the tide of child labour. This article argues that there is a need for the three countries to work closely together to implement policies that reverse or fight against child labour. The researchers used a qualitative methodology to interpret the variations in the application of child labour laws. They found there are no harmonised laws to deal with child labour in South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Hence, this article recommends that an independent supranational organisation be established in Southern Africa to monitor, evaluate, and implement progressive laws to eradicate child labour in line with internationally recognised best practices as set out in child labour laws.
Objective To describe the experiences of girls who have undergone FGM/C, so that efforts toward ending this practice can be scaled up using evidence-based interventions. Method: A qualitative descriptive design with in-depth interviews conducted with 16 genitally mutilated girls, aged between 12 and 19 years. Results: Four themes and 10 sub-themes were identified. The themes were: it is the right thing to do; the cold circumcision morning; life after FGM/C; FGM/C is ongoing. They experienced fear, uncertainty, pain, and helplessness due to the practice. Conclusion: The FGM/C experiences of these girls could serve as evidence to scale up efforts toward ending FGM/C.
Oluchukwu Loveth Obiora, Johanna Elizabeth Maree, Nokuthula Gloria Nkosi
Globally, 497 million young people (15-24 years) are in the labour force. The current research on work and violence indicates reciprocal links across the life course. This study draws on data from 35,723 young people aged 13-24 years in the Violence Against Children Surveys (VACS) in nine countries to describe the epidemiology of work in order to explore associations between (1) current work and violence and (2) childhood violence and work in a hazardous site in young adulthood. The prevalence of past-year work among 13-24-year-olds was highest in Malawi: 82.4% among young men and 79.7% among young women. In most countries, young women were more likely to be working in family or domestic dwellings (range: 23.5-60.6%) compared to men (range: 8.0-39.0%), while men were more likely to be working on a farm. Work in a hazardous site was higher among young men compared to women in every country. Among children aged 13-17 years, we found significant positive associations between past-year work and violence among girls in three countries (aORs between 2.14 and 3.07) and boys in five countries (aORs 1.52 to 3.06). Among young people aged 18-24 years, we found significant positive associations among young women in five countries (aORs 1.46 to 2.61) and among young men in one country (aOR 2.62). Associations between childhood violence and past-year work in a hazardous site among 18-24-year-olds were significant in one country among girls and in three countries among boys. Continued efforts are needed to prevent hazardous work, improve work environments, and integrate violence prevention efforts into workplaces.
Amiya Bhatia, Maryam Parvez, Jodie Pearlman et al.
The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) South Africa commissioned the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) to hold participatory consultations with children of different age groups to document their voices on issues related to their safety and protection, wellbeing and health based on the findings of the status of violence against children review report - 2020. Guided by the rights perspective, consultations explored children's responses to the findings of the report as children growing up in South Africa. The children's voices are used to communicate children's understanding of the status of violence against children in 2020 and what has changed in the last twenty years in relation to this topic. The consultations with school children in selected South African provinces focused on violence reported by various studies which occurs at home, in school, in the community and online.
BACKGROUND: Adolescent girls in Zambia face risks and vulnerabilities that challenge their healthy development into young women: early marriage and childbearing, sexual and gender-based violence, unintended pregnancy and HIV. The Adolescent Girls Empowerment Program (AGEP) was designed to address these challenges by building girls' social, health and economic assets in the short term and improving sexual behavior, early marriage, pregnancy and education in the longer term. The two-year intervention included weekly, mentor-led, girls group meetings on health, life skills and financial education. Additional intervention components included a health voucher redeemable for general wellness and reproductive health services and an adolescent-friendly savings account. METHODS: A cluster-randomized-controlled trial with longitudinal observations evaluated the impact of AGEP on key indicators immediately and two years after program end. Baseline data were collected from never-married adolescent girls in 120 intervention clusters (3515 girls) and 40 control clusters (1146 girls) and again two and four years later. An intent-to-treat analysis assessed the impact of AGEP on girls' social, health and economic assets, sexual behaviors, education and fertility outcomes. A treatment-on-the-treated analysis using two-stage, instrumental variables regression was also conducted to assess program impact for those who participated. RESULTS: The intervention had modest, positive impacts on sexual and reproductive health knowledge after two and four years, financial literacy after two years, savings behavior after two and four years, self-efficacy after four years and transactional sex after two and four years. There was no effect of AGEP on the primary education or fertility outcomes, nor on norms regarding gender equity, acceptability of intimate partner violence and HIV knowledge. CONCLUSIONS: Although the intervention led to sustained change in a small number of individual outcomes, overall, the intervention did not lead to girls acquiring a comprehensive set of social, health and economic assets, or change their educational and fertility outcomes. It is important to explore additional interventions that may be needed for the most vulnerable girls, particularly those that address household economic conditions. Additional attention should be given to the social and economic environment in which girls are living. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN29322231. Trial Registration Date: March 04, 2016; retrospectively registered.
Karen Austrian, Erica Soler‐Hampejsek, Jere Richard Behrman et al.
In most communities in sub-Saharan Africa, the definition of a child is culturally, politically, and socially unspecific and varied. The variance in meanings ascribed to a child is evident in legislative definitions, especially on the issue of child marriage. Child marriage, a human rights violation is a legal or customary union in which one or both spouses are below the age of 18. This practice is prevalent in most communities in sub-Saharan Africa. Arguably, it robs children of the opportunity to enjoy childhood and experience dependence, protection, and care. Rather, it turns them into protectors, nurturers, and providers. Children are shoved with the responsibility of being parents through child marriage. Thus, creating no demarcation between the role and responsibility of an adult and a child. Given that children are ill-prepared for marriage and its concomitant elements such as sex, psychological, emotional and physical maturity to be spouses and possibly parents, this paper argues that the journey to self-discovery and identity is at the intersection of culture, law, and religion. The clash between religious and cultural autonomy is a pervasive problem for national and international laws, one that arises because of claims of immunity from child protection and marriage provisions on the grounds of cultural or religious autonomy. Informed by observation during fieldwork in Southern African countries and literature on cultural relativism, this paper suggests that the clash between cultural autonomy and child marriage prohibition is best addressed through a legal pluralist perspective. This perspective seeks to bridge the gap between customary law, national laws, and international treaties, and requires sensitivity to the economic and socio-cultural factors behind the persistence of child marriage.
Abstract Introduction Globally, adolescent pregnancy and marriage contribute to high school dropout rates. Girls who drop out of school early tend to have poorer health indicators than those who continue their education. In 1997, the government of Zambia, through the Ministry of Education, introduced the Re-entry Policy to facilitate adolescent girls who had dropped out of school to continue their education. However, since this policy enactment, there has not been any formal study to explore the facilitators and challenges of its implementation. This study explored factors influencing the re-engagement of school dropout girls into the education system following the enactment of the Re-entry Policy in Zambia. Methods This was a qualitative study conducted in three priority districts in Zambia between September and October 2022. We conducted 26 key informant interviews with officials from the district government department, implementing partners, community members, and parent-teacher association representatives, 14 in-depth interviews, and 5 focus-group discussions with girls who re-engaged into the education system and those who had not returned to school. Data were collected on the reasons why girls had dropped out, facilitators of their re-engagement, and challenges experienced during and/or after the re-engagement process. Data analysis was conducted using a reflexive thematic analysis approach, following a structured coding process. Results Factors influencing girls to drop out of school included socioeconomic constraints, gender roles and inequality, long distances to schools, and inadequate and unsafe boarding facilities. Conversely, factors facilitating girls’ return to school included the recognition of the value of education as a means for achieving personal development, a supportive policy environment, educational sponsorships, the engagement of community and traditional leadership in ending child marriages. However, the challenges for re-engaging girls back to school included limited comprehensive sponsorship and funding opportunities, limited implementing partners funding opportunities for girls to stay in school, and inadequate community awareness of the Re-entry Policy. Suggested strategies to address the challenges that girls face in re-engaging them back to school included an expansion of existing limited school infrastructure and increased implementation of Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE) in schools. Conclusion Socioeconomic, cultural, and structural factors rank among the major challenges that limit girls’ re-entry and retention in the school system. Therefore, increasing resources and opportunities for scholarships, expanding school infrastructure, and engaging stakeholders to improve access to and delivery of quality education are essential measures to enable girls to attain their educational potential. Policy Implications The findings highlight the need for strengthening existing policies to address socioeconomic constraints, gender inequality, and unsafe boarding to reduce dropout rates . Additionally, increasing educational sponsorship, community awareness of the Re-entry Policy, community leadership, and parents’ involvement in preventing child pregnancies and marriages is essential. Finally, the government should expand the school infrastructure, strengthen the implementation of CSE to facilitate overcoming the current challenges, and support girls’ return to school for social development.
Malizgani Paul Chavula, Batuli Habib, Hikabasa Halwiindi et al.
Background: Adolescent pregnancy poses significant global health challenges, particularly in regions with weak healthcare systems, and is linked to the third Sustainable Development Goal on health. It is associated with high rates of maternal and child morbidity and mortality, with hypertensive disorders, haemorrhage, infections, low birth weight, and preterm delivery being common issues. In Sub-Saharan Africa, adolescent pregnancy accounts for 10-30% of maternal deaths. The Research Initiative to Support the Empowerment of Girls (RISE) project in rural Zambia aimed to reduce early childbearing by providing economic support to girls and their families, along with community interventions to enhance sexual and reproductive health knowledge.Objective: This study explored the experiences of adolescent pregnancy among girls who participated in the RISE project in Chibombo and Chisamba districts, Zambia.Methods: A qualitative phenomenological approach was used, involving 20 girls aged 15-19 years who had experienced pregnancy and received support from the RISE project. The study was conducted in schools within Chibombo and Chisamba districts, including Kampekete, Chombela, Kalala, and Kapopo.Results: Most participants were 18 years old, in their 9th grade, and from Chibombo district. They typically became pregnant at 16 years of age. Participants reported adverse social and health consequences of early pregnancy, such as social and family neglect, fistula, school dropout, depression, low self-esteem, and forced marriage. The RISE project was viewed positively for its financial support, education on re-entry policy, awareness of early marriage dangers, contraceptive knowledge, and life skills training. Contributing factors to adolescent pregnancy included poverty, peer pressure, traditional practices, and lack of sexual education. Barriers to contraceptive access included prejudice, inaccessibility, and cultural factors.Conclusion: Adolescent pregnancy in rural Zambia poses severe health and social challenges. The RISE project demonstrates the importance of targeted interventions in reducing early childbearing and supporting affected girls' reintegration into education and society.
Inonge Lubasi, JOHN SOKO, Malizgani Paul Chavula et al.
Abstract In this article, we explore the sociocultural constraints that undermine rural adolescent girls’ agency in resisting early child marriage in a gender-unequal context in Zimbabwe. Drawing on interviews with 20 rural high school girls aged 14 to 17, we analyze how intersecting forces—patriarchal authority, family control, economic precarity, and institutional complicity curtail girls’ autonomy. Findings reveal how fear of familial rejection, the lack of safe spaces, the silencing of girls’ voices, and the normalization of early child marriage converge to limit resistance. The involvement of authority figures in abuse, cultural responses to early pregnancy, and limited access to information further intensify girls’ vulnerability. Dismantling early child marriage requires transformative interventions that challenge patriarchal norms and foster collective empowerment in structurally marginalized rural sub-Saharan Africa.
