Peer-reviewed article

Comparing the effects of analogical instruction with internal and external focus of attention on golf putting skill learning in children with developmental coordination disorder: Emphasizing mental representation structure.

Nazari Kakvandi S, Ramezanzade H, Kordi H · 16 Jun 2026

Abstract

This study examined the effects of implicit learning-based instruction-analogy, external focus (EF), and their combination-on golf putting performance and learning in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Given that internal focus of attention often competes with external focus by drawing attention to body movements, combining analogy with EF may help direct attention externally by simplifying movement execution. Sixty children aged 7-9 with DCD were randomly assigned to five groups: analogical instruction, EF, internal focus (IF), analogical-external focus (A-EF), and control. The IF group focused on their striking hand; the EF group focused on the putter's path and target. The analogical group performed a pendulum-like swing based on a biomechanical metaphor. The A-EF group combined the pendulum analogy with EF instructions. The control group received no instructional cues. Participants completed a pretest, followed by three acquisition sessions (3 × 20 trials per session), immediate and delayed retention tests (72 hours post-practice), a transfer test (from a 5.5-meter distance), and an automaticity test under dual-task conditions. Results showed that, collapsed across acquisition sessions, both the external focus (EF) and combined analogy-external focus (A-EF) groups significantly outperformed the internal focus (IF) group. In retention, transfer, and dual-task performance, all three implicit learning groups (A, EF, A-EF) performed significantly better than the IF and control groups. These findings suggest that implicit instructional methods, particularly the combined approach, enhance motor learning in children with DCD, likely due to reduced reliance on working memory and greater automaticity of movement execution.