Peer-reviewed article

Parental and early child skills outweigh home numeracy environment in predicting maths development.

Tonje Amland, Germán Grande, Elsje van Bergen, Monica Melby-Lervåg, Arne Lervåg · 13 Oct 2026

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Studies on the home numeracy environment (HNE) show mixed evidence of its link with children's mathematical skills. A rarely considered aspect is parents' dual role as providers of the home environment and transmitters of genetic predispositions relevant for learning. Parents' maths abilities may serve as a proxy for the genetic transmission that confounds the home-child association, as proposed in the Familial Control Method. We examined whether numeracy activities at home predict children's maths development, while accounting for parents' maths ability and children's initial skill level. METHODS: We analysed data from 244 Norwegian school children, 201 mothers and 146 fathers. Children's maths fluency was assessed in Grades 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Parents completed an HNE questionnaire and a maths assessment when children were in Grade 2. Relations among HNE, parental maths and children's maths development were tested using structural equation modelling. RESULTS: Both formal and informal HNE predicted Grade 3 maths. After controlling for parental maths, only mothers' informal HNE remained associated with Grade 3 performance. When Grade 1 maths was included, only fathers' formal activities were related to Grade 3 skills, while both parents' maths still predicted Grade 3 performance. Only Grade 1 maths predicted Grade 3 as well as subsequent growth. CONCLUSIONS: The finding that parental maths predicted children's maths beyond family activities underscores the importance of addressing familial confounding in research on the home environment. To better understand the role of the HNE in maths development, research should consider parents' skills, children's early skills and HNE as a dynamic process.