Peer-reviewed article

Are Children with Disabilities Learning When Included in School? a Capability Approach to Participation in the Learning Process in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Cluster Control Randomised Trial

Jean‐Francois Trani, Steven D. Taff, Yiqi Zhu, Saria Bechara, Ramesh Raghavan et al. · 2 Jul 2026

Abstract

Children with disabilities represent 240 million globally. The sustainable development goal 4 calls for inclusive and equitable quality education for all, including children with disabilities. Unfortunately, children with disabilities are more likely to never attend school or drop out early in the process due to multiple barriers. We conducted a randomised control trial aiming at improving children’s learning outcomes in 203 primary schools of Afghanistan and Pakistan. Our study examines the effect of a participatory, child-centred pedagogy intervention on learning outcomes among children with disabilities. Our intervention significantly improved learning outcomes for children with disabilities (life skills, self-efficacy, reading literacy) after adjusting for sex, grade, assets, livestock, and country at both follow-ups. It also improved resilience at wave 3. Girls with disabilities in intervention schools showed significantly greater improvement in life skills, self-efficacy and reading literacy at wave 2 compared to controls after adjusting for covariates. They also improved life skills and reading literacy at wave 3 compared to controls. Impact was secured overall for children with disabilities despite dire circumstances. Our intervention is the first to show that social, emotional, and pedagogical participatory school interventions can improve learning outcomes of children with disabilities in conflict and crisis settings.