Peer-reviewed article

Timing matters: a prospective investigation of father absence and pubertal timing in girls and boys.

Drazan TM, Chaku N · 19 Mar 2026

Abstract

Background Puberty is beginning earlier across cultures and geographic regions. Father absence is one of the most robust psychosocial predictors of earlier pubertal timing. Yet the importance of its timing (i.e., when absence and presence are most impactful), variability (i.e., fluctuations in absence and presence), and consistency (i.e., the persistence of absence or presence) remains understudied, as do the developmental mechanisms that underlie associations between father absence and pubertal timing. Methods Data were obtained from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a prospective cohort of 4,898 participants. Father absence was indexed via mother-reports at birth, and ages 1, 3, 5, and 9. Pubertal timing was indexed via breast development in girls, facial hair growth in boys, and pubic and underarm hair in both at age 9. Relative maturation was also assessed at ages 9 and 15. Child body mass index, father depression, and material hardship were examined as possible mediators at age 5. Results Four distinct patterns of father absence emerged, representing fathers who were (1) consistently absent, (2) absent early in life but present later in childhood, (3) present early in life but absent later in childhood, and (4) consistently present. Consistent father absence and father absence in the first year of life only were associated with earlier breast development in girls and earlier facial hair growth in boys, but not earlier pubic and underarm hair growth; father absence was inconsistently associated with indicators of relative maturation. None of the proposed mediators significantly mediated these associations. Conclusions The findings from this prospective cohort study suggest that father absence, particularly in the first year of life, is associated with signs of earlier pubertal timing in both girls and boys. These patterns are consistent with sensitive period hypotheses, but must be further investigated in the context of broader signals of adversity and resilience.