Peer-reviewed article

Ophthalmologic manifestations in children with autism spectrum disorder.

Pereira L, Ormazábal I, Kohn G, Dillems M, Garretón R et al. · 9 Oct 2026

Abstract

Purpose To determine the frequency and clinical characteristics of ophthalmologic manifestations in children aged ≤16 years with autism spectrum disorder who were evaluated at a private academic healthcare network and a public tertiary hospital. Methods This retrospective descriptive study was conducted through a review of the medical records of children aged <16 years with autism spectrum disorder who were examined between 2023 and 2024. Demographic characteristics, visual function testability, refractive errors, strabismus, and prescribed treatments were analyzed. Dynamic retinoscopy was used to objectively assess the binocular accommodative response. Statistical analyses included 95% confidence intervals (Wilson score method) and exploratory multivariate logistic regression. Results A total of 144 children were included; 79.2% were male, and the mean age was 6.3±2.7 years. Refractive errors were identified in 81.9% of children, of whom 63.2% had clinically significant errors requiring optical correction. Strabismus was diagnosed in 32.6% of cases, with exotropia being the most prevalent type. Stereopsis was successfully assessed in 72.2% of children. Notably, dynamic retinoscopy demonstrated perfect agreement (κ=1.000, p<0.001) with the presence of clinically significant refractive errors. Multivariate regression showed that increasing age was strongly associated with successful visual acuity testing, whereas neurological comorbidities and greater autism spectrum disorder severity significantly increased the odds of non-testability. Among children who continued follow-up, 63.9% experienced significant improvement in visual acuity. Although optical correction was generally well tolerated, adherence to occlusion therapy was notably low (6.8%), and 42.4% of the cohort was lost to follow-up. Conclusions Ophthalmologic abnormalities, particularly refractive errors and strabismus, are highly prevalent among children with autism spectrum disorder. Given the limited reliability of subjective visual assessment in this population, objective measures, particularly dynamic retinoscopy and cycloplegic refraction, are essential for accurate diagnosis. The substantial loss to follow-up further highlights the need for adapted clinical strategies to ensure continuity of ophthalmologic care in this population.