Peer-reviewed article
Sociodemographic predictors of parenting stress among mothers in disadvantaged settings: evidence from rural and urban study sites in Kenya and Zambia
Kenneth Okelo, Patricia Kitsao-Wekulo, Silas Onyango, Elizabeth Wambui, Iain Hardie et al. ·
Summary
Written by AI, not yet AICS's view · claude-haiku-4-5-20251001This study examined what sociodemographic factors predict parenting stress among mothers in rural and urban areas of Kenya and Zambia. Researchers compared stress levels across four study sites and used statistical modelling to identify which factors—such as income, education, and family structure—were most strongly associated with stress. They found that mothers' income and educational level were significant predictors, with higher income and education linked to lower parenting stress, and stress levels varying between rural and urban settings.
Key points
- Parenting stress was lower in rural study sites (Kenya rural: 37.6, Zambia rural: 43.0) compared to urban sites (Kenya urban: 48.8)
- Higher household income was associated with lower parenting stress in both Kenya rural and urban settings
- Higher maternal educational level was associated with lower parenting stress in Kenya rural settings
- The study included data from longitudinal nurturing care evaluation studies in disadvantaged settings
- Poverty alleviation and education improvements are suggested as measures to reduce parenting stress and improve child development outcomes
Limitations
The document does not provide information about the study sample size, the time period covered, or causal mechanisms explaining why these sociodemographic factors predict stress. The cross-sectional or longitudinal nature of the analysis for stress prediction is not clearly specified.
Abstract
Abstract Background: Parental stress occurs when parenting demands are greater than the resources available to cope with parenting. Previous research has identified household wealth, educational level, marital status, age, and number of dependent children as predictors of parental stress. However, limited evidence exists from sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This study investigated the sociodemographic predictors of parenting stress among mothers in Kenya and Zambia. Methods: Data were obtained from longitudinal nurturing care evaluation studies conducted in rural and urban study sites in Kenya and Zambia. Mean parental stress scores (PSS) were compared across study sites, and multiple regression modelling was used to examine associations between sociodemographic predictors (household income, educational level, marital status, maternal age, child age, number of children aged <5 years) and PSS, adjusting for clustering and other predictors. Results: The mean PSS was lower in rural study sites and higher in urban sites (Kenya rural: 37.6 [SD=11.8], Kenya urban: 48.8 [SD=4.2], and Zambia rural: 43.0 [SD=9.1]). In addition, mothers’ income and educational level were associated with PSS (income: Kenya rural, β = -0.43; 95% CI[-16.07, -5.74]; P =.003**; Kenya urban, β = -0.33; 95% CI[-6.69, -0.80]; P =.01*; education: Kenya rural, β = -0.24; 95% CI[-8.97, -1.68]; P=.005**). Conclusion: Measures to increase education levels, alleviate poverty, and improve household incomes, such as subsidising childcare, improving parental stress levels, and positive parenting practices, lead to better growth and development of their children. Trial registration: PACTR201905787868050 and PACTR20180774832663